Introduction to International Relations Important Questions BA Programme nep semester-5 in english

What Is International Relations ?

Meaning of IR 

• International Relations (IR) is a field that studies how countries and other players on the world stage interact with each other. 

• These players include not just countries but also international organizations like the United Nations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), businesses that operate in many countries (multinational corporations), and even individuals.

IR looks at important global issues like:

• How countries work together or sometimes come into conflict.

• How they handle global challenges like climate change, war, and trade.

• How they protect human rights and deal with health crises like pandemics.

Historical Background  

• The idea of countries interacting is ancient, but International Relations as a formal field of study is relatively new, starting in the early 20th century. 

• To understand how it developed, let's go through its history step by step:

Ancient and Early Practices:

• Even in ancient times, civilizations like the Greeks, Chinese, Indians, and Egyptians engaged in diplomacy (the management of relationships between countries). For example:

• Treaties: One of the earliest peace treaties known, the Treaty of Kadesh, was signed between Egypt and the Hittite Empire around 1259 BCE.

• Alliances and Trade: Ancient states often formed alliances and traded goods to build relationships. 

• They sent ambassadors to each other’s courts to maintain peace and manage conflicts.

• Though these interactions were part of what we now call international relations, there wasn’t a formal academic study of them yet.

The Middle Ages to the 19th Century – The Rise of Modern States

• During the medieval period, religion played a big role in international politics. 

• The Catholic Church had a lot of influence in Europe.

• In Asia, the great empires like the Chinese dynasties had their own diplomatic systems.

• The Peace of Westphalia (1648): This was a crucial moment in history that shaped modern international relations. 

• It ended a long series of wars in Europe and established the idea of national sovereignty, meaning each state had control over its territory and government.  

• 18th and 19th Centuries: As European countries grew stronger, they developed more formal systems of diplomacy.

• During this time, ideas like the "balance of power" emerged.

• This concept meant that no single country should become too powerful, as that could lead to dominance and conflict. 

• Countries formed alliances to keep power in check.

Early 20th Century – The Formal Study of International Relations Begins

• World War I (1914-1918): The First World War was devastating and involved many countries. 

• It raised questions about why such large-scale conflicts happen and how they could be prevented.

• This concern led to the birth of International Relations as a formal academic discipline.

• League of Nations: The first global organization aimed at maintaining world peace.

• However, it was ineffective due to lack of enforcement power and the absence of key states (e.g., the USA).

• World War II (1939-1945): Resulted in massive devastation and led to a shift in international relations.

• It showed the failure of the League of Nations in preventing another major conflict.

Post-World War II: The United Nations and Cold War

• United Nations (1945): Established to promote peace, security, and cooperation. 

• Unlike the League, the UN included major powers in its Security Council with veto power, making it more effective.

• Cold War (1947-1991): A period of political tension between the USA (capitalist bloc) and the USSR (communist bloc).

• Characterized by nuclear arms race, proxy wars (e.g., Korea, Vietnam), and ideological rivalry.

• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Formed by countries that wanted to remain neutral in the Cold War, advocating for peaceful coexistence and economic cooperation.

Post-Cold War and Modern International Relations

• End of Cold War (1991): The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of bipolarity in world politics. 

• The USA emerged as the sole superpower, leading to the era of unipolarity.

• Globalization: Increased interdependence among countries in trade, technology, and communication.

• International relations became more complex, involving non-state actors like multinational corporations, NGOs, and international organizations.

• Rise of Multipolarity: The 21st century has seen the emergence of new power centers, such as China, the European Union, and India, indicating a shift towards a multipolar world.

• Current Issues: Modern international relations focus on global challenges like climate change, terrorism, human rights, and economic inequalities.

Idealism V/S Realism Debate 

Realism

• Think of realism like a game where each player (country) is mostly interested in winning.

• In this game, countries focus on power and security. 

• They do things to protect themselves and become stronger because they don’t trust other countries to always be friendly.

• Realists believe that the world is a competitive and dangerous place, so each country should look out for itself. 

• They might make alliances, but only if it benefits them.

• It's a bit like saying, "I need to be strong and careful because I can’t fully trust others."

• Focus on Power: Realists believe that countries (also called states) are primarily driven by the desire for power and security.

• Self-Interest: They argue that every country acts in its own self-interest, trying to protect itself and get more power, often at the expense of others.

• World as Competitive: Realists see the world as a dangerous place where countries compete for limited resources. 

• They think it's normal for countries to be suspicious of each other and prepare for conflicts.

• "Might Makes Right": In this view, the country with the most power (economic, military) usually wins and sets the rules.

Thinkers 

• Thucydides

• Niccolò Machiavelli 

• Hans Morgenthau

• Kautilya 

Idealism 

• Idealism is like a different game where players believe in cooperation and helping each other.

• Idealists think countries can solve problems and avoid fights by working together, following rules, and using fair ways to make decisions, like through the United Nations.

• They believe that if countries talk, make agreements, and respect each other, the world can become more peaceful.

• It's like saying, "If we all play fair and help each other, everyone wins."

• Focus on Cooperation: Idealists believe that countries can work together to achieve peace and mutual benefits.

• Moral Values: They emphasize the importance of moral values, international laws, and global institutions (like the United Nations) in guiding how countries interact.

• Optimistic Outlook: Idealists believe that through dialogue, diplomacy, and cooperation, countries can solve global problems, reduce conflicts, and create a better world.

• "Right Makes Might": They argue that international rules and agreements are what should guide actions, not just power.

Thinkers 

• Immanuel Kant

• Woodrow Wilson

• John Locke

• Voltaire

Classical Liberalism 

• Think of classical liberalism like a group of friends who believe that they will get along better if they respect each other's freedom and work together. 

• In the world of countries, classical liberalism suggests that nations are more peaceful and successful if they trade with each other, have democratic governments, and follow basic rules.

• Free Trade: When countries trade goods, they become economically dependent on each other. 

• It’s like friends who share things; if they depend on each other, they are less likely to fight.

• Democracy: When countries have democratic governments (where people choose their leaders), they tend to prefer peace over war.

• It’s like how friends who talk openly and make decisions together are less likely to have big arguments.

• International Law: Countries that follow international laws and join groups like the United Nations are like friends who agree on some rules for their games; this makes things fair and reduces misunderstandings.

• Example: Imagine two neighboring countries that trade food and technology with each other. Because they both benefit from this trade, they are less likely to go to war.

• Also, if they have similar democratic systems, they understand each other better and are more likely to resolve problems peacefully.

Thinkers 

• Immanuel Kant

• John Locke

• Adam Smith

• Woodrow Wilson

Neoliberalism in International Relations

• Neoliberalism is like an upgrade to classical liberalism. 

• It acknowledges that while countries look out for their own interests,they realize it’s smarter to cooperate with others, especially in a world where everything is connected (like trade, travel, and communication).

• Institutions: Neoliberalism emphasizes the role of international organizations (like the United Nations, World Trade Organization, or World Health Organization). 

• These institutions are like referees in a game. They set rules, help solve disputes, and make sure everyone plays fairly.

• Countries use these institutions to keep things running smoothly and to solve global problems.

• Complex Interdependence: In today’s world, countries are connected in many ways (trade, internet, environment). 

• It’s like being in a big neighborhood where everyone relies on each other. 

• Because of this, it makes more sense to work together than to fight.

• Collective Security: Problems like climate change or terrorism affect everyone.

• So, countries must join forces to tackle these issues, just like how neighbors might team up to clean up a shared park or fix a broken streetlight.

• Example: Think about how the world responded to global challenges like climate change. Countries come together at international meetings (like the Paris Climate Agreement) to agree on what they will do to fight global warming. 

• This is neoliberalism in action: countries working through international institutions to solve problems that affect everyone.

In Even Simpler Terms:

• Classical Liberalism: "If we trade and play fair (follow rules), we’ll all be better off and have fewer fights.“

• Neoliberalism: "Yes, and we also need referees (international institutions) to help us cooperate, because we are all connected and face common problems."

Thinkers 

• Robert Keohane

• Joseph S. Nye

• John Ikenberry

• Richard Cobden

Classical Marxism 

• Classical Marxism is based on the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It sees the world in terms of a struggle between classes:

• the bourgeoisie (the wealthy capitalists who own production) and the proletariat (the working class who sell their labor).

• In international relations, classical Marxism argues that wealthy, industrialized countries (capitalist states) exploit poorer, less developed countries.

• This global inequality is seen as an extension of the capitalist system, 

• where powerful countries extract resources and wealth from weaker ones.

• Imperialism: Classical Marxism sees imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism.

• Rich countries colonize and dominate poor countries to access cheap labor, raw materials, and new markets for their goods.

• Economic Determinism: The belief that economic factors (who controls the wealth and means of production) shape all aspects of society, including politics and international relations.

• According to this view, wars and conflicts often result from the capitalist pursuit of resources and profits.

• Global Capitalist System: The world is seen as a single capitalist system, where rich countries (the "core") exploit poorer countries (the "periphery"). 

• This global system keeps poor countries in a state of dependency and underdevelopment.

• Example: In classical Marxism, the colonization of African and Asian countries by European powers is viewed as a way for the wealthy, industrialized countries to exploit these regions for their resources, labor, and markets.

• The capitalist countries get richer, while the colonized countries remain poor.

Neo Marxism 

• Neo-Marxism, which emerged in the mid-20th century, builds on classical Marxism but updates its ideas to fit the modern, globalized world.

• it still focuses on economic exploitation and inequality but looks at more complex dynamics, including the role of international institutions, multinational corporations, and cultural factors.

• Neo-Marxism argues that global capitalism has evolved into a more interconnected system of power. 

• It emphasizes how multinational corporations, international financial institutions (like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund), and global trade agreements maintain the dominance of wealthy countries over the poorer ones.

• World-Systems Theory: Developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory divides the world into the core (rich, developed countries), periphery (poor, underdeveloped countries), and semi-periphery (countries that are between the two). 

• The core countries exploit the periphery for labor and resources, while the semi-periphery acts as a buffer.

• Hegemony: Neo-Marxists argue that powerful countries use cultural and political influence (hegemony) to maintain their dominance in the global system.

• This includes promoting ideas like free trade, democracy, and consumer culture, which benefit the core countries.

• Dependency Theory: A key neo-Marxist concept that explains how poor countries are trapped in a cycle of dependency. 

• Rich countries exploit their resources and labor, making it nearly impossible for them to develop independently.

• Example: Neo-Marxists would argue that the global economic policies of institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank often favor wealthy nations.

• For instance, when these institutions provide loans to poorer countries, they might impose conditions (like reducing public spending or opening up markets to foreign companies) that benefit the richer countries and keep the poorer ones dependent.

In Even Simpler Terms:

• Classical Marxism: "The world is divided into rich and poor. The rich countries get richer by exploiting the poor countries' resources and labor. It's like a factory owner using workers to make money; here, it's rich countries using poor countries.“

• Neo-Marxism: "Today, this exploitation is more complicated. Rich countries use international institutions (like the IMF and World Bank) and global companies to keep poorer countries under control. They promote ideas and rules that benefit themselves, making it hard for poor countries to catch up."

Examine The Feminist Perspective In International Relations

• Feminist IR theory came about because most traditional theories of international relations were written from a male perspective. 

• These theories focus on things like war, power, and economics, but they don’t consider how these issues impact women or other gender minorities.

• Gender Matters: Feminists in IR argue that understanding global politics requires looking at how society views the roles of men and women. 

• For example, men are often associated with power, aggression, and leadership, while women are seen as caregivers and peacekeepers.

• These stereotypes shape how countries deal with conflicts, trade, and international policies.

• Women's Experiences: The feminist perspective highlights how international events, such as wars or economic crises, affect women differently than men. 

• In wars, for example, women often face issues like sexual violence, displacement, and loss of livelihoods. 

• This perspective argues that we need to consider these experiences to understand the true impact of global events.

• Security Beyond Military: Traditional IR often focuses on "state security," which means protecting countries from outside threats through military power.

• Feminists in IR argue for "human security," which includes basic needs like food, health, safety, and freedom from violence. 

• They believe that protecting people, especially women and children, is just as important as protecting states.

• Including Women in Decision-Making: Feminists emphasize the importance of involving women in political decisions, especially in peace talks and conflict resolution.

• Research shows that when women are involved in peace processes, the resulting agreements are often more successful and long-lasting.

• Challenging Traditional Theories: The feminist perspective challenges traditional IR theories like realism (focused on power and military) and liberalism (focused on cooperation between states). 

• It argues that these theories overlook important social issues and the different ways global politics affect everyday people, especially women.

Thinkers 

• J. Ann Tickner

• Cynthia Enloe 

• Bell Hooks

• V. Spike Peterson

Discuss the two significant phases in the evolution of Indian contributions to International Relations (IR), highlighting key characteristics and influences shaping each phase.

Early Phase (Pre-Independence to the 1950s)

• During this phase, Indian contributions to International Relations were deeply rooted in the country's struggle for independence and the quest for a new world order based on equality, justice, and peace.

• Anti-Colonialism: Indian thinkers and leaders criticized colonialism and imperialism. They argued for the right of every nation to self-determination, which means the right to govern themselves without external interference.

• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): After gaining independence in 1947, India, under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, played a key role in founding the Non-Aligned Movement in the 1950s. 

• This movement was created during the Cold War as an alternative to aligning with either the US-led Western bloc or the Soviet-led Eastern bloc.

• The Non-Aligned Movement promoted the idea of peaceful coexistence, mutual respect for sovereignty, and non-intervention in the internal affairs of other countries.

• Gandhian Philosophy: Mahatma Gandhi's ideas of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha (truth force) shaped the early Indian perspective on international politics. 

• He believed that moral values should guide political actions.

• Gandhi’s influence encouraged India to pursue a foreign policy that avoided military alliances and sought peaceful resolution of conflicts.

• Nehruvian Approach: Jawaharlal Nehru's vision extended beyond just Indian interests; he sought a world order where developing countries had a significant voice.

• His approach emphasized disarmament, the abolition of nuclear weapons, and strengthening the United Nations as a platform for dialogue and cooperation among nations.

Modern Phase (Post-1990s)

• Economic Diplomacy: In 1991, India underwent significant economic liberalization, which opened up the country to foreign investments, trade, and global markets. 

• This marked a departure from earlier economic policies focused on self-reliance and state control.

• Strategic Partnerships: The shift also led India to build strategic relationships with key global players. 

• India began engaging in bilateral and multilateral dialogues, joining forums like BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and the G20 to strengthen its position in global economic and political matters

• Security and Defense: India started focusing on enhancing its military capabilities and securing its strategic interests, particularly in the Indian Ocean region. 

• Issues like counter-terrorism, border security, and maritime security became crucial aspects of its international relations.

• Economic Reforms: The 1990s economic reforms opened up India to global markets, leading to an increased emphasis on economic diplomacy, trade relations, and participation in global institutions like the World Trade Organization (WTO).

• Multipolar World Vision: With the Cold War over, India began advocating for a multipolar world—a global order where power is distributed among multiple countries rather than dominated by one or two superpowers.

• Soft Power: India also started using its cultural and democratic values, such as Bollywood, yoga, and democratic institutions, to enhance its global influence.

Discuss the two significant phases in the evolution of Indian contributions to International Relations (IR), highlighting key characteristics and influences shaping each phase.

• Human Rights are fundamental rights and freedoms that every individual is entitled to, simply by being human.

• These rights are universal and apply to all people, regardless of race, nationality, gender, religion, or any other status.

• They ensure basic standards of living, personal freedom, equality, and dignity for everyone. 

• These rights protect individuals from discrimination, injustice, and oppression.

Definition of Human Rights

• United Nations Definition: Human rights are “rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status."

Core Assumptions of Human Rights

• Universality: Human rights apply to everyone, everywhere, at all times. No one is excluded from these rights, regardless of their background or circumstances.

• Equality and Non-Discrimination: Everyone is entitled to the same human rights without discrimination. All human beings are equal in dignity and rights.

• Inalienability: Human rights cannot be taken away. They are inherent to every person. Even if governments violate these rights, they still exist and should be protected.

• Indivisibility: All human rights are interconnected and equally important. 

• Civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights are interdependent and contribute to a person's dignity and development.

• Accountability and Rule of Law: Governments and institutions must be held accountable for protecting and promoting human rights.

• There are laws and mechanisms to ensure rights are upheld, and individuals can seek justice if their rights are violated.

The Global Human Rights Structure

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR):

• Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, it outlines the fundamental human rights that must be protected universally.  

United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC):

• A body within the UN system responsible for promoting and protecting human rights globally. 

• It monitors human rights violations, reviews countries' human rights records, and provides recommendations.

Regional Human Rights Mechanisms:

There are regional systems to protect human rights, including:

• European Court of Human Rights (Europe)

• Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (Americas)

• African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (Africa)

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

• Various international and local NGOs like Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and others play a vital role in monitoring, reporting, and advocating for human rights worldwide.

What is global governance, and why is it important in addressing contemporary global challenges?

• Global Governance refers to the way different countries, organizations, and international institutions work together to manage global issues that affect everyone. 

• Unlike a single world government, global governance involves a network of various actors, including states (countries), international organizations (like the United Nations), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations

Why is Global Governance Important? 

• Tackling Global Problems: Many challenges, such as climate change, terrorism, pandemics, and economic crises, do not stop at national borders. 

• Individual countries cannot solve these problems on their own. 

• Global governance provides a platform for countries to come together, share resources, and develop common strategies to address these issues.

• Promoting Peace and Security: International conflicts, human rights abuses, and terrorism require coordinated responses. 

• Organizations like the United Nations (UN) play a key role in peacekeeping, conflict resolution, and protecting human rights.

• Economic Stability: In an interconnected world, the economy of one country can affect others. 

• For instance, the global financial crisis of 2008 showed how problems in one part of the world could quickly spread. 

• Global governance structures, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF), help countries cooperate on trade, finance, and development to maintain economic stability.

• Sustainable Development: Issues like climate change, environmental degradation, and resource scarcity need global solutions. 

• Global governance allows countries to create agreements, like the Paris Agreement on climate change, to work together on reducing pollution, protecting natural resources, and promoting sustainable development.

• Human Rights and Social Justice: Global governance bodies like the United Nations Human Rights Council work to uphold human rights and protect vulnerable populations. 

• By setting international standards, they encourage countries to adopt policies that promote equality, justice, and respect for all individuals.

Liberal Theory Of State 

Core Idea

• The state exists to protect individual rights and freedoms. 

• It acts as a neutral arbiter that enforces laws and contracts to ensure social order. The  

Key Features:

• Advocates for limited government intervention.

• Emphasizes individual liberty, democracy, rule of law, and private property.

• Notable Thinkers: John Locke, J.S. Mill, and Immanuel Kant.

• Criticisms: Critics argue that liberal theory ignores social inequalities and economic power dynamics.

Marxist Theory Of State 

• Core Idea: The state is a tool for the ruling class to maintain its dominance over the working class.

Key Features:

• Views the state as an instrument of class oppression.

• Claims the state maintains the status quo in favor of the bourgeoisie (capitalist class).

• Notable Thinkers: Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin.

• Criticisms: Critics of Marxist theory argue it underestimates the state's autonomy and its capacity to act independently of class interests.

Liberal-Pluralist Theory Of State 

• Core Idea: The state is a neutral entity that mediates among diverse interest groups in society, ensuring that no single group dominates.

• Emphasizes the protection of individual rights and freedoms.

• The state acts as a platform for negotiation and compromise between various social, economic, and political groups.

• Power is dispersed through democratic processes, allowing for checks and balances.

• Notable Thinkers: Robert Dahl, David Truman.

• Criticisms: Critics argue that power is not equally accessible to all groups, as wealthier interests often exert more influence.