History of India 1700-1857 Important Questions BA Programme nep semester-5 in English

Was The 18th Century In India A Period Of Continuity Rather Than Change?

Arguments for Continuity

Social and Cultural Stability:

• Caste and Village Structures: The social organization of India, including the caste system and village life, remained largely stable.

• Cultural Continuity:  Indian religious and cultural practices, such as festivals, temple worship, and artistic traditions, continued largely uninterrupted. 

• Even in regional courts, classical Indian music, dance, and the fine arts retained much of their traditional forms.

• Persian and Mughal Influence: Despite the decline of Mughal political power, Persian remained the language of administration

• high culture in many regions, and Mughal cultural norms were upheld in various successor states, such as Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad.

Agrarian Economy

• The agrarian economy, which was the backbone of India’s wealth, persisted.

• Local zamindars (landowners) continued to play a critical role in rural administration and tax collection.

Religious Continuity

• Religious traditions, such as Hinduism and Islam, remained deeply rooted.

• Many of the regional powers that emerged after the Mughal decline, such as the Marathas, retained religious structures and followed the Mughal system of toleration.

Arguments for Change

Political Fragmentation and Decentralization:

• The most significant change in the 18th century was the political decline of the Mughal Empire, particularly after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.

• This led to the fragmentation of political authority and the rise of regional powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan.

• The emergence of autonomous states such as Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad reflected a significant political shift from centralized Mughal rule to decentralized power. 

European Colonial Influence:

• The arrival and increasing dominance of European colonial powers, especially the British East India Company, marked a radical change.

• The victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar (1764) gave them control over Bengal, setting the stage for British colonial rule.

• Many Indian rulers began to adopt European military techniques, such as the use of infantry and artillery over traditional cavalry-based armies.

Economic Changes and Commercialization

• The 18th century saw a shift toward commercialization in certain regions, particularly in Bengal, as the British East India Company began to control trade and production.

Rise of New Powers

• The rise of the Marathas as a major force in the Deccan and northern India signified a fundamental shift in power dynamics.

• The Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh emerged as a formidable power in the northwest

What were the causes of battle of Plassey ? 

Why is the Battle of Buxar considered more important than the Battle of Plassey in the history of India?

The main causes of the Battle of Plassey

• Growing British Power in Bengal: The British East India Company was getting richer and stronger in Bengal, which made the local ruler, Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah, upset. 

• They were building forts and not following the local rules.

• Nawab’s Anger at the British:  Siraj-ud-Daulah didn’t like how the British were becoming too powerful and avoiding taxes.

• He saw them as a threat to his rule.

• The Black Hole Incident: Siraj-ud-Daulah's army attacked Calcutta and captured Fort William, where a group of British soldiers and civilians were imprisoned in a small room. 

• Many died, which made the British furious.

• British-French Rivalry: The British and French were already fighting in other parts of the world.

• Siraj-ud-Daulah was friendly with the French, which worried the British, who wanted to be the dominant power in India.

• Internal Betrayal: Some of Siraj-ud-Daulah’s own people, like his commander Mir Jafar, were unhappy with him and secretly made deals with the British to overthrow him.

The Battle of Buxar (1764) is considered more important than the Battle of Plassey because:

• Bigger Victory for the British: At Buxar, the British defeated a powerful alliance of three major Indian rulers — the Nawab of Bengal, the Nawab of Awadh, and the Mughal Emperor.

• This was a much stronger opposition than in Plassey.

• Full Control Over Bengal: After Buxar, the British got the right to collect taxes (Diwani) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. 

• This gave them complete control over the region’s money and resources, not just political power.

• End of Indian Resistance: Plassey was just the beginning of British control in Bengal, but Buxar made sure there were no strong Indian forces left to challenge British authority in northern India.

• Mughal Emperor Weakened: After Buxar, the Mughal Emperor lost all real power. 

• He became dependent on the British, marking the true end of Mughal influence in India.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY THE TERM ORIENTALISM? IN WHAT WAYS DID IT CONTRIBUTE TO THE EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA?

• Orientalism refers to the way Western scholars and people studied and portrayed Asian cultures, especially countries like India, China, and the Middle East.

• Over time, this study became a tool used by Western countries, including Britain, to dominate and control these regions. 

How Orientalism Helped the British in India:

Gaining Knowledge to Control India:

• British scholars, like Sir William Jones, studied Indian languages, cultures, and religions.

• By understanding India better, they could control it more easily.

Justifying British Rule:

• The British argued that although ancient Indian civilizations were great, modern India had become weak and chaotic. 

• This made it easier for them to claim that they were helping India by ruling it, as they believed India needed their "superior" guidance.

Controlling India’s Laws:

• The British used their knowledge of Indian traditions to create laws based on Hindu and Islamic texts.

• However, they shaped these laws in ways that suited British interests, helping them maintain control over India’s legal and political system.

Dividing Indian Society:

• By focusing on the differences between Hindus and Muslims, the British were able to create divisions in Indian society. 

• This "divide and rule" policy made it harder for Indians to unite against British rule.

Winning Over Indian Elites:

• The British portrayed themselves as protectors of Indian culture and heritage. 

• This helped them gain the support of local scholars and elites, who became loyal to the British administration. 

• This made it easier for the British to govern India without much resistance.

• In short, Orientalism helped the British gain knowledge about India, justify their rule, control its laws, divide the society, and win the support of influential Indians.

• All of this made it easier for them to expand and maintain their power in India.

Features of Permanent settlement 

• The Permanent Settlement, introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 in the Bengal region of India, was a land revenue system implemented by the British.

Fixed Land Revenue (Permanent Taxation)

• the amount of land revenue (tax) payable by the landowners (called Zamindars) to the British government was fixed permanently.

• Once the tax was set, it would never be increased or decreased, no matter if the production on the land went up or down.

• This was meant to provide stability and encourage landowners to improve agriculture since they wouldn’t have to worry about fluctuating taxes.

Zamindars as Landowners

• Under this system, the Zamindars became the official owners of the land.

• Before the British rule, many Zamindars were only tax collectors, but the Permanent Settlement gave them legal ownership rights over the land.

• This new ownership allowed Zamindars to collect rent from the farmers (tenants) who worked on the land.

• They were free to decide how much rent to charge the farmers, as long as they paid the agreed amount of tax to the British government.

Hereditary Ownership

• The ownership of land was made hereditary, meaning that it could be passed down from one generation to the next within the Zamindar’s family.

Responsibility of Paying Taxes

• While the British government imposed a fixed tax on the Zamindars, it was their responsibility to collect rent from the farmers to pay the tax.

• If a Zamindar failed to pay the tax to the British on time, they could lose their land, and it would be auctioned off to someone else. 

• This rule put pressure on Zamindars to collect as much rent as possible from farmers, often leading to exploitation.

Impact on Farmers (Peasants)

• For the farmers who worked on the land, this system often became a burden.

• Since Zamindars had to pay a fixed tax, they would sometimes raise the rent to very high levels to ensure they could make a profit.

• Many farmers could not pay the high rents, leading to widespread poverty and even the loss of their land.

• This caused immense hardship in rural areas, especially during poor harvest seasons or famines.

Application to Specific Regions

• The Permanent Settlement was primarily applied in the regions of Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Odisha and Madras.

• Later, similar systems were introduced in other parts of India, but the terms varied.

Revenue for the British Government

• For the British, the Permanent Settlement provided a steady and predictable source of income. 

• The government knew exactly how much tax they would receive each year, which helped them manage their finances better.

THE SOCIO RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS HAD A SIGNIFICANT ROLE TO PLAY IN THE EVOLUTION OF CONTEMPORARY INDIAN SOCIETY

1. Caste System and Untouchability

• Reformers fought against the oppressive caste system and untouchability.

• Jyotirao Phule (Satyashodhak Samaj) worked for the upliftment of lower castes.

• Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Truth Seekers) was a social reform organization founded by Jyotirao Phule in 1873 in Maharashtra, India. 

• The main objective of the Samaj was to promote social equality, particularly focusing on the upliftment of the oppressed and marginalized sections of society, such as the lower castes, women, and untouchables.

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led the movement for Dalit rights and helped in drafting the Indian Constitution, which abolished untouchability.

• Result: Foundation for equality and social justice in modern India.

Gender Equality and Women's Rights

• Reformers challenged practices like sati, child marriage, and the denial of women’s education.

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned for the abolition of sati (banned in 1829) and promoted women’s rights through Brahmo Samaj.

• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar advocated for widow remarriage (Widow Remarriage Act of 1856) and girls’ education.

• Result: Laid the foundation for modern women's rights and gender equality in India.

Religious Reform and Revival

• Reformers sought to purify and rationalize religious practices.

• Swami Vivekananda (Ramakrishna Mission) emphasized universalism and religious tolerance, inspiring national pride and modern Hinduism.

• Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj) promoted the return to Vedic values, rejecting superstitions, idol worship, and irrational rituals.

• Result: Made religion more inclusive, rational, and aligned with modern values.

Education and Social Awareness

• Reformers recognized the importance of education to eradicate social evils.

• Vidyasagar and Phule opened schools for women and lower-caste children.

• Education became a tool to fight ignorance, superstition, and social injustice.

• Result: The spread of education became a key factor in building a more progressive and inclusive society.

Nationalism and Modern Identity

• Reform movements tied closely with the rise of Indian nationalism.

• Swami Vivekananda emphasized national pride, spiritual revival, and unity as keys to resisting British colonial rule.

• Reformers worked towards creating a united, socially strong India that could resist colonial oppression.

• Result: Helped in forging a modern Indian identity based on equality, rationalism, and social justice.

Legacy in Contemporary India

• Many modern laws and values (abolition of untouchability, women’s rights, universal education) stem from these reform movements.

• Contemporary social movements for gender equality, caste rights, and education continue to draw inspiration from these reformers.

WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTED TO THE DECLINE OF TRADITIONAL INDUSTRIES IN THE LATE 18TH AND EARLY 19TH CENTURY IN INDIA ?

DEINDUSTRIALIZATION / DRAIN OF WEALTH  

British Colonial Policies and Drain of Wealth

Extractive economic policies: 

• The British drained wealth from India by transferring resources, profits, and taxes from India to Britain without reinvesting in the Indian economy.

• This “drain of wealth” impoverished the Indian population and diminished the resources available for domestic industrial growth.

• Land revenue systems: The Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems imposed high taxes on peasants, forcing them into debt. 

• This drained their purchasing power and severely reduced demand for locally produced goods, further undermining traditional industries.

• Unequal trade policies: The British set up an unequal system of trade, wherein India exported raw materials (cotton, indigo, opium) to Britain, and in return, imported finished goods. 

• This disrupted the Indian handicraft and textile industries.

Technological Superiority of British Industries

• British Industrial Revolution: The British Industrial Revolution resulted in the mechanization of industries, especially textiles, allowing British manufacturers to produce goods more cheaply and efficiently than Indian artisans. 

• Textile mills in Britain: British mills, equipped with modern technology like the spinning jenny and power looms, produced textiles on a mass scale, which could outcompete handmade Indian products in both local and global markets.

Destruction of the Indian Textile Industry

• Decline of cotton weaving and handicrafts: The most affected industry was the cotton weaving sector.

• Indian cotton textiles had been renowned globally for their quality, but with the influx of cheaper British machine-made goods, Indian weavers and artisans saw their livelihoods collapse.

• Ban on Indian exports: The British banned the export of Indian cotton textiles to European markets, further crippling Indian industry.

• Indian goods faced high tariffs in Britain, while British goods were allowed to enter Indian markets without similar restrictions.

Monopolization by the East India Company

• Monopolistic practices: The British East India Company monopolized trade in critical commodities like textiles, salt, and opium.

• Indian artisans were forced to sell their goods at low prices, while the company exported them at a profit.

• Export of raw materials: India was turned into a supplier of raw materials for British industries, especially cotton. 

• The value-added stages of production were carried out in Britain, while India lost out on both jobs and economic growth that came from manufacturing.

No industrialization in India

• Unlike Britain, which invested in modernizing its industries during the Industrial Revolution, India was kept as a supplier of raw materials. 

• There was no significant investment in developing India's own manufacturing

• Infrastructural development for British benefit: Infrastructure projects like railways and telegraph systems were developed primarily to serve British commercial interests.

• These projects helped the British extract resources more efficiently but did little to benefit Indian industries.

Famine and Poverty

• The decline in artisanal jobs pushed many artisans into agriculture, often as tenant farmers. 

• The combination of high taxes and the lack of employment opportunities pushed many into debt traps, which exacerbated the economic decline.

Impact on Agriculture

• Focus on cash crops: Under British rule, Indian farmers were pushed to cultivate cash crops like cotton and indigo for export, rather than food crops for domestic consumption.

• This emphasis on export-oriented agriculture disrupted traditional rural economies and indirectly contributed to deindustrialization.

COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE IMPLEMENTATION AND OUTCOMES OF THE RYOTWARI SYSTEM WITH OTHER REVENUE SETTLEMENTS SUCH AS  MAHALWARI SETTLEMENT

CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLT OF 1857

Political Causes:

• Doctrine of Lapse: The British policy stated that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would be annexed by the British. 

• This angered many rulers, including the annexation of Jhansi and Satara.

• Disrespect to Indian Princes: Indian kings and queens were often treated with disrespect.

• The dethroning of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh in 1856 was a big blow, causing unrest.

Economic Causes

• Heavy Taxes: Farmers and peasants were burdened with high taxes, leading to poverty. 

• The British land policies ruined the Indian economy, especially affecting local artisans and farmers

• Destruction of Handicrafts: Indian industries, especially handloom, were destroyed as British goods flooded the Indian markets.

• Many skilled workers became unemployed.

Social and Religious Causes

• Western reforms: Many Indians were unhappy with British social reforms like the abolition of practices such as sati (burning of widows) and child marriage.

• They saw these changes as interference in their traditional way of life.

• Religious fears: There were rumors that the British wanted to forcefully convert Indians to Christianity.

• For example, the use of animal fat (cow and pig fat) in the cartridges of the new Enfield rifles offended both Hindus and Muslims.

Military Causes

• Poor treatment of Indian soldiers (sepoys): Indian soldiers, or sepoys, in the British army were paid less than their British counterparts and often faced discrimination.

• Greased Cartridges Incident: The immediate cause was the introduction of a new rifle. 

• The cartridges were rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, offending both Hindus (who consider cows sacred) and Muslims (who consider pigs unclean).

Consequences of the Revolt of 1857

End of the East India Company's Rule:

• The British government dissolved the East India Company in 1858, taking direct control of India. 

• Queen Victoria became the Empress of India, and India was now ruled directly by the British Crown.

Reorganization of the Army:

• The British realized that they needed to change how they managed their army.

• They reduced the number of Indian soldiers and increased the number of British soldiers in India to prevent future rebellions.

Policy of Divide and Rule:

• After the revolt, the British started promoting divisions between Hindus and Muslims to weaken any future united uprisings. 

• They started giving privileges to different communities to create mistrust between them.

Changes in Administration:

• The British government introduced reforms in Indian administration to prevent future revolts. 

• They promised not to interfere in Indian customs and traditions as much as before.

• They also included Indians in the British administration, though only in lower positions.

Racial Divide:

• The revolt increased racial tensions between the British and Indians.

• The British now held a more superior attitude toward Indians, and distrust deepened between the two groups.

Nationalist Movements:

• Though the revolt failed, it became a symbol of resistance against British rule. 

• It sowed the seeds for future Indian independence movements, leading to the formation of political organizations like the Indian National Congress in 1885.

Short note on subsidiary alliance 

• The Subsidiary Alliance, introduced by Lord Wellesley in the late 18th century, was a policy used by the British to expand their control over Indian states without direct annexation.

• Stationing of British Troops: Indian rulers had to accept British troops in their territory and pay for their upkeep.

• Restriction on Alliances: The rulers were not allowed to form alliances with other powers or wage wars without British permission.

• Reduction of Indian Armies: They had to reduce their own military forces, making them dependent on British protection.

• Promise of Non-interference: The British promised not to interfere in the internal affairs of the states, though they often did.

Effects:

• Loss of Independence: Indian rulers lost much of their sovereignty and became reliant on the British.

• Expansion of British Influence: Many states like Hyderabad, Mysore, and Awadh were brought under British control.

• Financial Burden: The cost of maintaining British troops strained the finances of Indian rulers.

Short note on Allahabad treaty 

• The Treaty of Allahabad was signed on 12 August 1765 between the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the East India Company after the British victory at the Battle of Buxar in 1764.

• It marked a major turning point in Indian history by establishing British political and economic control in India.

• Diwani Rights: The East India Company was granted the right to collect revenue (Diwani) from the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This gave the British control over the wealth of these regions.

• Nawab of Awadh: The Nawab of Awadh (Shuja-ud-Daula) was restored to his throne but had to pay a large indemnity and keep British troops stationed in his territory.

• Mughal Emperor's Pension: Shah Alam II was allowed to live under British protection in Allahabad, and he was given a fixed annual pension by the Company.

Effects:

• Start of British Control in India: The Treaty allowed the British to control vast resources and wealth, especially from Bengal, which became the base of British power in India.

• Weakening of Indian States: Both the Mughal Emperor and the Nawab of Awadh became dependent on British support, signaling the decline of Indian powers.

• Foundation of British Rule: This treaty laid the foundation for the British to expand their influence, leading to eventual domination over the Indian subcontinent.