History OF India 1200-1550 Important Questions BA programme nep semester-3 in English

EXPLAIN THE FEATURES OF IQTA SYSTEM UNDER THE DIFFERENT SULTANS OF DELHI.

The Iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate was a way for the rulers to manage land, taxes, and the military. 

What is Iqta?

It was a piece of land or area given to nobles, officers, or soldiers, called Iqtadars, in return for their service to the Sultan.

How did it work?

The Iqtadar collected taxes from the land's people. With this tax money:

• They paid their soldiers.

• They kept some money for their own expenses.

• The remaining money was sent to the Sultan’s treasury.

What Was The Purpose?

• To maintain a large army without the Sultan paying soldiers directly.

• To reward loyal nobles and officers with land.

How did the Sultan control it?

• The Sultan made sure Iqtas weren’t given permanently.

• Iqtadars were moved to new areas often so they wouldn’t become too powerful. 

Why did the system cause problems?

When Sultans became weak, Iqtadars stopped following orders and acted like kings of their areas, leading to the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. 

the Iqta system under different Sultans of Delhi:

Under Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210)

• foundational Stage: Aibak introduced the Iqta system as a reward to nobles and soldiers.

• No centralized control: Initially, Iqtadars (Iqta holders) enjoyed considerable autonomy in their regions.

• Revenue Collection: Iqtadars collected revenue from the land to maintain themselves and their forces.

Under Iltutmish (1210–1236)

• Systematization of Iqta: Iltutmish institutionalized the system and brought central oversight.

• Military and Administrative Purpose: The land revenue was not only for personal income but also for maintaining troops for the Sultan.

• Reassignment: Iqtas were transferred frequently to prevent hereditary claims by nobles. 

Under Balban (1266–1287)

• Strict Central Control: Balban restricted the powers of Iqtadars to maintain royal authority.

• Supervision of Iqtadars: Governors were kept under close watch, and military services were monitored to avoid rebellion.

• Royal Officials (Khut and Muqaddam): Appointed to oversee tax collection and administration within Iqtas.

Under Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)

• Reforms to Prevent Nobles' Power: Alauddin drastically reduced the autonomy of Iqtadars.

• Direct Revenue Collection: Introduced market reforms to bring more revenue directly under the Sultan's treasury. 

• Troops Maintenance System: Iqtadars had to maintain soldiers, but their salaries were paid directly by the Sultan to avoid misuse of funds.

Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351)

• Further Expansion: Muhammad bin Tughlaq expanded the Iqta system but struggled to maintain control over distant regions.

• Frequent Transfers: Iqtas were frequently reassigned, leading to discontent among nobles.

• Decentralization Issues: Mismanagement led to rebellions, especially in remote areas. 

Under Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388)

• Iqta System Relaxes: Firuz Shah reduced military demands on Iqtadars and allowed them more autonomy.

• Hereditary Iqta: Iqtas became hereditary in many cases to maintain loyalty among nobles.

• Revenue Decline: This weakened the Sultan’s control over military forces and administration.

Decline during Later Sultans (15th Century)

• Breakdown of Central Control: The Iqta system became highly decentralized as weak rulers failed to enforce strict control.

• Regional Independence: Many governors (Iqtadars) declared independence, leading to the formation of regional kingdoms. 

GIVE A SURVEY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOURCES FOR CONSTRUCTING THE HISTORY OF DELHI SULTANATE

Constructing the history of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) requires diverse sources, as no single type of record provides a complete picture

Delhi Sultanate History

• Sufi & Bhakti Literature 

• Administrative Records

• foreign Accounts 

• Numismatic Sources 

• Archaeological Evidence

• Epigraphic Sources

• Literary Sources

LITERARY SOURCES 

Court Chronicles

• Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-i-Siraj: A history of the early sultans, including Iltutmish and Balban.

• Ziauddin Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi: Covers the reigns of the Khilji and Tughlaq dynasties. 

• Futuhat-i-Firozshahi by Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq: Autobiographical work focusing on his achievements.

Biographies and Memoirs

• Tughlaq Nama by Amir Khusrau: A poetic account of the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

• Khusrau's other works, including Nuh Sipihr, provide insight into life under different sultans. 

Travelogues

• Rihla by Ibn Battuta: Provides details of life in Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign.

• Accounts by Marco Polo and Persian ambassadors offer perspectives on trade and diplomacy.

Epigraphic Sources (Inscriptions)

• Inscriptions in Arabic and Persian provide valuable information on rulers, administration, and religious endowments. 

• Qutb Minar inscriptions: Document the achievements of early rulers like Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

• Tomb and mosque inscriptions: Provide dates, titles, and genealogies of rulers.

• Inscriptions on mosques and madrasas reveal state patronage of religious architecture. 

Archaeological Evidence

• Excavations in cities like Delhi, Firozabad, and Siri reveal structures such as mosques, palaces, waterworks, and fortifications.

• Qutb Complex: Provides architectural insights into the transition from Hindu to Islamic architecture. 

• Material remains such as pottery and tools unearthed from medieval settlements. 

Numismatic Sources (Coins)

Coins help reconstruct the political and economic history of the Sultanate.

• They reflect rulers’ titles and political control.

• Example: Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s experiment with token currency.

• Coins also show the extent of trade networks and regions under Sultanate influence. 

Foreign Accounts

Travelers, traders, and ambassadors from other regions recorded their impressions of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Ibn Battuta’s Rihla describes the administration and court life of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

• Chinese and Persian envoys documented diplomatic relations and trade exchanges with the Sultanate.

Administrative Records and Firmans

Official decrees, land grants, and revenue records provide insight into governance and economic policies.

• Alauddin Khilji's market regulations and revenue reforms are referenced in court chronicles and administrative records.

• Land grants in Persian and Arabic inscriptions reveal state control over agricultural land and taxation systems. 

Sufi and Bhakti Literature

These provide social and cultural insights that are not covered in court chronicles.

• Sufi texts reflect interactions between rulers and religious communities.

• Example: Fawaid al-Fuad discusses Nizamuddin Auliya’s influence on Delhi’s rulers.

• Bhakti poetry during the Sultanate period captures popular responses to changing religious and social conditions. 

CRITICALLY EVALUATE THE MARKET REGULATIONS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI.

KEY FEATURES OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI’S MARKET REGULATIONS

Price Control (Market Fixation):

• Prices of essential commodities like food grains, sugar, oil, cloth, and animals were fixed.

• Both wholesale and retail markets had regulated prices to ensure that even the poor had access to necessities.

Grain Hoarding Prohibition:

• Merchants were forbidden from hoarding food grains.

• This was to prevent artificial scarcity and ensure price stability.

Creation of Market Divisions:

He divided the market into three types:

• Grain Market (Mandi) for food supplies.

• Cloth and Luxury Goods Market for higher-end items.

• Slave Market (Sarai-i-Adl) for cattle, slaves, and horses

State Granaries:

• The state stockpiled grains to release them during famines or scarcity, thus maintaining supply and prices. 

Spies and Market Inspectors:

• A network of spies (barids) and officers, including the Shahna-i-Mandi, monitored market transactions.

• Strict punishments were imposed for overcharging, hoarding, or non-compliance with the regulations.

Control on Salaries and Luxury:

• To reduce inflation, wages of soldiers and officials were fixed at lower levels. 

• This policy was intended to curb luxury and excessive expenditure among the nobility.

Successes of Market Regulations

1. Stability and Availability of Goods:

• The regulation of prices and strict monitoring ensured that commodities were available at affordable prices, preventing inflation.

2. Prevented Exploitation by Merchants:

• The prohibition on hoarding and the fixed-price system curbed profiteering and exploitation by merchants.

3. Strengthened Military and Administration:

• By keeping soldiers' salaries low, Alauddin could maintain a large standing army and prevent rebellion within the administration.

Criticism and Limitations

Coercive Nature of Regulations:

• The system relied heavily on force and surveillance, making it unsustainable in the long run. 

• Merchants operated under fear, not cooperation, leading to discontent. 

Excessive Bureaucracy and Corruption:

• The reliance on officials and spies to monitor markets created opportunities for corruption. 

• Officials might have taken bribes to allow merchants to violate the rules.

Impact on Military Morale:

• Keeping salaries of soldiers artificially low, though beneficial to the state, might have affected soldiers’ morale, reducing their long-term loyalty and efficiency. 

Collapse after Alauddin’s Death:

• The market regulations were not institutionalized, and they collapsed soon after Alauddin's death, indicating that they were dependent more on the ruler’s personal authority than on a sustainable system.

CHISHTI SAINTS DURING THE PERIOD OF DELHI SULTANATE 

The Chishti saints played a crucial role during the Delhi Sultanate period (1206–1526), promoting Sufism and influencing society through their teachings.  

Emphasis on Love and Devotion

• The Chishti saints stressed love for God and compassion for humanity (insaaniyat) over rituals and formalities.

• They believed in achieving divine closeness through spiritual practices like prayer, meditation, and serving others.

Renunciation of Material Wealth

• The Chishti saints, especially prominent figures like Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, avoided wealth and state patronage, maintaining distance from rulers and political power.

• They emphasized simple living and self-discipline, practicing asceticism. 

Service to Humanity (Khidmat-e-Khalq)

• Charity, feeding the poor, and helping the needy were integral practices.

• Langar (community kitchen) was a common feature at their dargahs, where anyone, regardless of religion or caste, could receive food. 

Religious Tolerance

• The Chishti saints were known for their inclusive approach, welcoming people of all faiths.

• This helped them gain followers across different sections of society, including Hindus and Muslims.

Spiritual and Moral Guidance

• The saints provided moral and ethical guidance to people, offering advice based on love, self-purification, and patience.

• They believed in the unity of all beings and preached that God’s love is open to everyone. 

Music and Poetry (Sama)

• Chishti saints used music (Qawwali) as a way to inspire devotion and achieve spiritual ecstasy.

• They believed that Sama gatherings (musical assemblies) could create an emotional and spiritual connection with God. 

Dargahs as Centers of Spiritual Activity

• The dargahs (shrines) of Chishti saints, such as Ajmer Sharif (Moinuddin Chishti) and Nizamuddin Dargah (Nizamuddin Auliya), became centers of spiritual learning and devotion.

• People from all walks of life visited these shrines to seek blessings, healing, and guidance. 

Disregard for Caste and Social Hierarchies

• The Chishti saints rejected caste distinctions and promoted the idea of equality among humans.

• They attracted followers from different communities, spreading the message of universal brotherhood.

Role in Bridging Religious Divides

• During the politically turbulent times of the Delhi Sultanate, the Chishti saints acted as bridges between different communities, fostering peace and cultural exchange. 

FEATURES OF QUTUB COMPLEX  

QUTUB MINAR

• Height: 73 meters, making it the tallest brick minaret in the world.

• Material: Red sandstone for the lower stories; marble and sandstone for the top two.

• Structure: It has five stories, each marked by a projecting balcony.

• Inscriptions: Arabic and Nagari script carvings praise rulers and document repairs.

• Construction: Started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1200 CE) and completed by his successor Iltutmish.

• Damage: The top was damaged and repaired multiple times by later rulers like Firoz Shah Tughlaq. 

QUWWAT-UL-ISLAM MOSQUE

• Meaning: The name means "Might of Islam.“

• Significance: It’s the first mosque built in Delhi after Muslim rule began.

• Construction Materials: Built from materials taken from 27 Hindu and Jain temples, which is why the mosque has a mix of Islamic and Indian motifs.

• Layout: It has a large central courtyard with arched screens (some of the earliest Islamic arches in India).

Iron Pillar

• Age: Over 1,600 years old, from the Gupta period.

• Height and Weight: 7.2 meters tall and weighs about 6 tons.

• Rust Resistance: The iron is exceptionally pure, which explains why it has not rusted.

• Inscription: The text praises the achievements of King Chandragupta II (4th century CE). 

ALAUDDIN KHILJI’S MADRASA AND TOMB

• Madrasa (School): A center for Islamic learning during Khilji’s rule (13th century).

• Tomb: Khilji was the only Delhi Sultanate ruler to be buried within his own madrasa. His tomb is simple but historically important.

• Architecture: The madrasa shows early examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. 

ALAI MINAR (UNFINISHED TOWER)

• Planned Size: Khilji wanted it to be twice the height of Qutub Minar, but he couldn’t complete it.

• Current State: Today, it looks like a massive stone base, about 24.5 meters high.

• Reason for Incompletion: Work stopped after Khilji’s death in 1316 CE.

TOMBS AND OTHER RUINS

• Tomb of Iltutmish: Built in 1235 CE, the tomb has intricate carvings, including geometric patterns and Quranic verses.

• Smith’s Cupola: A small dome added by British engineer Major Robert Smith in 1828 on top of Qutub Minar, but it was later removed and now lies in the garden nearby. 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

• Architectural Style: The Qutub Complex showcases an interesting mix of Islamic, Hindu, and Jain styles, since materials were reused from earlier temples.

• UNESCO World Heritage Site: It was declared a UNESCO site in 1993 for its cultural and architectural significance.

• Visitors’ Attraction: The complex offers not just history but also beautiful gardens, making it a popular spot for tourists and locals alike.

DISCUSS THE NATURE OF VIJAYANAGARA STATE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO NAYANKARA SYSTEM

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE) was a powerful South Indian state that governed vast regions from the Deccan Plateau to southern India. 

THE NATURE OF VIJAYANAGARA STATE   

Centralized Monarchy with Strong Kingship

• The Vijayanagara Empire was ruled by monarchs, who claimed divine status and held supreme authority over political, military, and religious matters. 

• The king was the apex of the administrative structure and was assisted by a council of ministers.

• Dynasties such as the Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu ruled the empire during different phases. 

Decentralized Administrative Structure

• While the king held overall authority, the administration was decentralized through regional governance.

• Governors or viceroys managed larger provinces (Mandalams), often appointed from royal families.

• The empire relied on local chieftains, merchant guilds, and military officers for maintaining control over distant regions. 

THE NAYANKARA SYSTEM

• The Nayankara system was a distinctive military-administrative practice employed by the Vijayanagara rulers. 

• It was similar to the feudal system of Europe, where military commanders, known as Nayakas, were granted land in return for military services. 

Nature of Nayakas

• Nayakas were often military chiefs or commanders who were given land grants (Amaram or Nayankara) to manage specific regions. 

• In exchange for these grants, the Nayakas had to provide military support to the king, particularly during wars.

• Nayakas functioned like feudal lords, enjoying substantial autonomy in their regions. 

Land and Revenue Assignments

• The lands given to Nayakas were not hereditary but were held at the pleasure of the king.

• They collected taxes and revenues from the assigned territories, a portion of which was forwarded to the central treasury, while the rest was used to maintain their troops.

Autonomy of Nayakas

• Although they owed allegiance to the Vijayanagara king, many Nayakas enjoyed significant independence.

• Over time, some powerful Nayakas, such as those in Tanjore and Madurai, became influential and semi-independent rulers.

Military Obligations

• The primary duty of the Nayakas was to maintain a standing army and supply troops whenever the emperor called upon them.

• This system enabled the Vijayanagara rulers to maintain a large military force without having to directly fund all soldiers. 

Role in Administrative Stability and Decline

• Initially, the Nayankara system allowed the empire to expand and maintain effective control over distant areas through local military elites. 

• However, over time, the increasing autonomy of the Nayakas contributed to internal instability.

• After the defeat at the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE), the empire fragmented, and many Nayakas declared independence, leading to the emergence of regional powers. 

DISCUSS THE TEACHINGS OF KABIR AND NANAK.

Kabir (1440–1518) was a 15th-century mystic poet and saint whose teachings shaped the Bhakti Movement. 

On God:

• Kabir emphasized the unity of God, believing in a single formless divine being (Nirguna).

• He rejected idol worship, stating that God is omnipresent and can be experienced within oneself.

• “God is within you,” he said, criticizing external rituals. 

Critique of Ritualism:

• Kabir was critical of religious orthodoxy and rituals of both Hindus and Muslims.

• He rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Quran, and questioned pilgrimages, fasts, and animal sacrifices. 

Equality and Brotherhood:

• Kabir opposed caste discrimination, declaring all humans equal regardless of birth.

• He believed in universal brotherhood, focusing on love and compassion for all beings. 

Use of Poetry:

• Kabir’s teachings are expressed in simple couplets, known as dohas, making spiritual ideas accessible to the masses.

• Guru Nanak (1469–1539) was the founder of Sikhism, and his teachings laid the foundation of the Sikh faith.

On God:

• Nanak believed in Ik Onkar (One Supreme Reality) – God is one, eternal, formless, and present everywhere.

• His concept of God was beyond gender and shape but could be experienced through devotion and meditation on the name of God (Naam Simran). 

Rejection of Ritualism:

• Guru Nanak criticized hollow rituals, superstitions, and idol worship in both Hinduism and Islam.

• He preached the importance of living a truthful life aligned with divine principles rather than relying on religious rites. 

Equality and Social Justice:

• He advocated for the equality of all people, irrespective of caste, creed, or gender.

• His emphasis on service (seva) and communal living (langar) fostered a spirit of inclusiveness and shared humanity. 

Spiritual Liberation:

• Nanak taught that liberation (mukti) is achieved through devotion to God, ethical living, and remembering God constantly.

• He emphasized Naam Japo (meditating on God's name), Kirat Karo (earning an honest living), and Vand Chakko (sharing with others).

Moral Living and Service:

• Nanak insisted that spiritual progress must align with ethical conduct, kindness, and selfless service.

• He encouraged people to be socially responsible, rejecting asceticism in favor of living in the world with righteous conduct.

WRITE AN ESSAY ON THE WARKARI MOVEMENT OF MAHARASHTRA.

• The Warkari Movement is a socio-religious movement that emerged in Maharashtra around the 13th century and continues to flourish. 

• It revolves around the worship of Lord Vithoba (Vitthal), an incarnation of Vishnu, whose temple is located in Pandharpur. Below are the key features of this movement: 

Bhakti (Devotion):

• Central to the movement is pure devotion (bhakti) towards Lord Vithoba.

• It emphasizes personal connection with God without the need for intermediaries like priests. 

Equality and Social Reform:

• The movement promotes equality among all, irrespective of caste, gender, or social status.

• It was anti-casteist and challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy, advocating that everyone is equal in devotion. 

Non-Violence and Simple Living:

• Warkaris lead a life of simplicity, non-violence, and vegetarianism.

• They emphasize humility, contentment, and a frugal lifestyle. 

Abhanga Literature:

• The Warkaris express devotion through Abhangas (devotional songs) in Marathi.

• Saints like Sant Tukaram, Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sant Namdev, and Eknath played a crucial role in composing these. 

Pilgrimage to Pandharpur:

• A key aspect of the movement is the annual pilgrimage (yatra) to the temple of Lord Vithoba at Pandharpur.

• Devotees (Warkaris) walk barefoot from various parts of Maharashtra, chanting bhajans and singing abhangas. 

Inclusivity and Collective Worship:

• The movement encourages collective worship through kirtans (devotional singing) and bhajans, often performed in groups.

• It brings people together in a spirit of community and fellowship.

Moral Discipline and Code of Conduct:

• Warkaris follow a disciplined lifestyle, avoiding intoxicants and immoral activities.

• They wear a tulsi mala (basil bead necklace) and chant the name of Vithoba regularly. 

Opposition to Ritualism and Idol Worship:

• While temples play a role, the movement emphasizes inner devotion over external rituals.

• Saints taught that true worship lies in good deeds and ethical living rather than elaborate rituals. 

Educational Influence and Spread of Vernacular Learning:

• The movement contributed to spreading education by promoting spiritual teachings and values in the vernacular language, Marathi.

• It made religious teachings accessible to the masses. 

Continuity and Relevance:

• The movement is still vibrant today, with lakhs of devotees participating in the Pandharpur yatra.

• It continues to influence the cultural and religious landscape of Maharashtra.