History OF Europe 1789-1870 Important Question BA Programme nep Semester-5 in English

The French Revolution 

Background 

The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was the result of a combination of social, political, and economic factors that had been developing over several years.

Social Inequality and the Estate System

Division of French Society into Three Estates: French society was divided into three estates

First Estate (Clergy):

• Represented less than 1% of the population but owned around 10% of the land. 

• The clergy were exempt from paying taxes and held significant influence over the people.

Second Estate (Nobility):

About 2% of the population, the nobility controlled vast amounts of land, enjoyed privileges such as exemption from taxes, and had exclusive access to high-ranking jobs in the government and military.

Third Estate (Commoners):

• Comprising 97% of the population, the Third Estate included the bourgeoisie (middle class), urban workers, and peasants. 

• Despite being the majority, they had little political power and bore the brunt of taxation.

Economic Crisis

Financial Mismanagement and Debt: France was financially weakened due to:

Extravagant Spending by the Monarchy:

• Kings Louis XIV and Louis XV spent heavily on palaces like Versailles and luxury, adding to the state’s debt. 

• Costly Wars: Involvement in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) and the American War of Independence (1775–1783) further strained France’s economy. 

• These wars were expensive, and the debts incurred were not met with adequate reforms to the tax system.

Ineffective Tax System

• The tax system was highly regressive. 

• The Third Estate paid most of the taxes, including the taille (land tax) and the gabelle (salt tax), while the privileged estates were exempt. 

• This burden increased economic hardship for the lower classes. 

Inflation and Bread Prices

• A series of poor harvests in the late 1780s led to food shortages and inflation.

• Bread, a staple of the French diet, became extremely expensive, causing widespread hunger and anger among the urban working class. 

Enlightenment Ideas

Philosophical Influence: The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that challenged traditional views of authority and promoted the ideas of individual liberty, equality, and democracy. Key thinkers who influenced the French Revolution included:

• John Locke: Advocated for the natural rights of life, liberty, and property, and the concept of the social contract.

• Voltaire: Criticized the Catholic Church and advocated for freedom of speech and religion. 

• Montesquieu: Proposed the idea of separation of powers in government to prevent tyranny.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Promoted the idea of the general will and direct democracy, arguing that legitimate political authority rests with the people.

Weak Monarchy and Leadership

King Louis XVI’s Ineffectiveness: Louis XVI, who ruled from 1774 to 1792, was seen as a weak and indecisive monarch. His inability to resolve France’s financial problems, his resistance to reform, and his reliance on unpopular ministers deepened public dissatisfaction.

• Reforms Blocked: Louis XVI attempted some financial reforms, such as those proposed by his finance minister Jacques Necker, but these were often blocked by the nobility or the clergy, who were unwilling to give up their privileges.

• Marie Antoinette: Louis XVI’s wife, Marie Antoinette, was widely despised by the French public for her lavish spending and perceived detachment from the struggles of ordinary people. 

• She was derogatorily called "Madame Deficit" for her role in worsening the financial situation.

Political Crisis and the Estates-General

Summoning of the Estates-General (1789): Faced with a financial crisis and the need for new taxes, Louis XVI was forced to summon the Estates-General, a representative assembly of the three estates, for the first time since 1614. This was a significant event, as it gave the Third Estate an opportunity to voice its demands for reform.

Dispute Over Voting

• A major point of contention was the method of voting.

• Traditionally, each estate voted as a bloc, with each estate having one vote. 

• This system favored the First and Second Estates, despite the Third Estate representing the majority of the population. 

• The Third Estate demanded voting by head (one person, one vote), which would give them more influence.

Failure to Achieve Reform

The failure of the Estates-General to address the concerns of the Third Estate led to a break from the traditional order and the formation of the National Assembly, marking the first step towards revolution.

Influence of the American Revolution

Inspiration from Abroad

• success of the American Revolution (1775–1783) provided a powerful example of how Enlightenment ideas could be applied to overthrow a monarchy and establish a government based on popular sovereignty. 

• Many French soldiers, including Lafayette, had fought in the American Revolution and were influenced by its principles of liberty and democracy.

Financial Impact of American Support:

• France’s involvement in the American Revolution deepened its financial crisis. The government had provided significant funds to the American cause, further increasing the country’s debt without solving its own internal problems. 

• This worsened the fiscal situation, leading to increased pressure for reform.

Phases Of The French Revolution 

1. Moderate Phase (1789-1792)

• People in France were unhappy with the king, taxes, and lack of food. So, they started a revolution.

• They took over the Bastille prison (a symbol of royal power) and created new laws for more rights and equality.

• France became a constitutional monarchy, meaning the king had less power, and the people had more say in the government.

2. Radical Phase (1792-1794)

• The revolution got more intense. The people decided to get rid of the king completely.

• They created a republic (no king), and King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed.

• During this phase, anyone who was against the revolution was punished, and many were executed during a time called the Reign of Terror.

3. Thermidorian Reaction (1794–1795)

• People got tired of the violence. The leader of the Reign of Terror, Robespierre, was arrested and executed.

• This phase brought a bit more peace, as the extreme violence slowed down.

4. The Directory (1795-1799)

• A group of 5 leaders, called the Directory, took control, but they were not very effective.

• France still had problems like corruption and economic issues.

• Napoleon Bonaparte, a popular general, gained power during this time and would soon take over France.

Congress of Vienna

• The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was a major diplomatic conference held in Vienna, Austria, aimed at reorganizing Europe after the defeat of Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars. 

• It involved all the major powers of Europe at the time 

• The Congress of Vienna took place after 25 years of near-constant warfare in Europe, culminating in the defeat of Napoleon. 

• The primary goal was to restore order and stability by redrawing Europe's political map and establishing a balance of power to prevent future conflicts.

Objectives of the Congress of Vienna

• Balance of Power: The most important goal was to create a balance of power in Europe so that no single nation could dominate others as France had done under Napoleon.

• Restoration of Monarchies: Many of the ruling dynasties that had been overthrown by Napoleon were restored to their thrones (e.g., the Bourbon monarchy in France).

• This principle of legitimacy sought to return legitimate rulers to power.

• Territorial Redistribution: Territories were reshaped and redistributed to balance power. 

• For example, Poland was divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by merging Belgium and Holland.

• Containment of France: France, though not punished harshly, was contained by strengthening its neighboring countries to prevent future aggression.

• Prevent Revolutionary Movements: The Congress aimed to prevent future revolutions by maintaining the status quo, strengthening conservative forces, and suppressing liberal and nationalist movements.

Key features 

• Restoration of Monarchies: The Congress brought back the kings and queens who had been overthrown by Napoleon, restoring old royal families to power in various countries.

• Balance of Power: They wanted to make sure no country, like France, could become too powerful again.

• To do this, they redistributed land and territory across Europe so that power was shared more evenly among the big countries.

Territorial Changes:

• Austria got more control over northern Italy.

• Russia gained part of Poland.

• Prussia received new lands in Germany.

• Britain kept its overseas colonies and key ports.

• Containment of France: France was not punished too harshly, but its borders were reduced, and strong countries were placed around it to prevent future threats from France.

• Conservative Ideals: The Congress focused on keeping things the way they were before the French Revolution, opposing ideas like democracy, freedom, and nationalism (the desire for people to form their own nations).

• The "Concert of Europe": This was an agreement among the big powers (like Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, and France) to work together to solve any conflicts peacefully and maintain stability in Europe.

• Long-term Peace: The changes made at the Congress of Vienna helped keep Europe mostly peaceful for about 40 years, until the next major conflict.

Describe the key socio-economic changes that occurred in Europe during the early 19th century and discuss how these changes contributed to the rise of labour movements. 

In the early 19th century, Europe underwent major socio-economic changes due to industrialization, which transformed the way people worked and lived.

Key Socio-Economic Changes

• Industrialization: Factories started replacing small workshops and home-based crafts.

• Machines made production faster, but it also meant people had to move from villages to cities for factory jobs.

• Urbanization: As factories needed many workers, people left rural areas and flocked to cities.

• This caused overcrowding, poor living conditions, and unhealthy environments in cities.

• Changes in Work Conditions: Factory work was very different from traditional farm work. 

• Workers faced long hours, low pay, dangerous conditions, and little to no job security.

• Growth of a Working Class: A new social class emerged—the working class, made up of factory workers.

• These workers shared common problems such as poor wages and tough working conditions.

How These Changes Led to the Rise of Labor Movements:

• Shared Struggles: Workers, facing similar issues, started realizing that they needed to come together to demand better conditions.

• This led to the formation of labor unions, which are groups of workers united to protect their rights.

• Protests and Strikes: Workers started organizing protests and strikes to demand better pay, shorter working hours, and safer workplaces. 

• These actions were the early stages of the labor movements.

• Political Awareness: As the working class grew, people became more politically aware and began pushing for laws that would protect workers, such as limits on working hours and regulations for safe working conditions.

Examine the role of liberalism in early 19th-century Europe.

• In early 19th-century Europe, liberalism emerged as a key political and social movement, advocating for individual freedoms, democracy, and limited government intervention.

• It was a response to the oppressive monarchies and aristocratic rule that had dominated the continent for centuries.

Key Ideas of Liberalism

• Individual Rights and Freedoms: Liberals believed in personal liberty, including freedom of speech, press, and religion.

• They wanted to protect individuals from government interference.

• Equality Before the Law: They opposed the idea of privileges for nobles and kings.

• Instead, liberals argued that everyone should be equal under the law, with no special rights for the aristocracy.

• Representative Government: Liberals wanted governments to be based on the consent of the people, not on inherited monarchy. 

• This meant promoting constitutional monarchies or republics where citizens had a say in governance through elected representatives.

• Free Market Economy: Economically, liberals supported capitalism and free markets. 

• They believed in minimal government interference in trade and business, promoting competition and individual entrepreneurship.

Liberalism’s Influence in Europe

• French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars: The ideals of the French Revolution (1789) like liberty, equality, and fraternity spread across Europe during Napoleon’s conquests.

• Napoleon also introduced legal reforms, such as the Napoleonic Code, which reflected liberal ideas by abolishing feudal privileges and promoting legal equality.

• Congress of Vienna (1815): After Napoleon’s defeat, European powers (like Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain) aimed to restore traditional monarchies and suppress liberal movements. 

• However, the ideas of liberalism persisted and continued to inspire political change.

• Revolutions of 1830 and 1848: In many European countries, liberal movements led uprisings against authoritarian regimes. 

• For example, in France (1830), a liberal revolt overthrew the conservative monarchy and replaced it with a constitutional monarchy. 

• The Revolutions of 1848 saw liberals across Europe demand more democratic rights, although many of these uprisings were eventually suppressed.

Impact on Society:

• Liberalism in the early 19th century pushed for political reforms such as constitutions, parliaments, and voting rights for the middle class (though not always for everyone, as women and working-class men were often excluded).

• It also laid the foundation for later democratic and human rights movements.

The Unification of Italy

• The Unification of Italy, also known as the Risorgimento ("Resurgence" or "Revival"), was the political and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian Peninsula into a single state, the Kingdom of Italy, in the 19th century.

• The process of unification spanned from 1815, after the fall of Napoleon, to 1871 when Rome was declared the capital of the unified Italy.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 

Congress of Vienna (1815): After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Congress of Vienna restored much of the pre-Napoleonic order. 

• This resulted in a fragmented Italian peninsula:

• Northern Italy was dominated by the Austrian Empire.

• The Papal States controlled central Italy.

• The southern part, including Sicily and Naples, was ruled by the Bourbon monarchy.

• Only the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont) remained somewhat independent, and it later became the nucleus for unification.

Cultural Revival and Early Movements : 

• The ideas of nationalism and liberalism spread across Europe in the 19th century, igniting aspirations for unification in Italy.

• Giuseppe Mazzini, a prominent nationalist, founded Young Italy in 1831, a secret society dedicated to the creation of a unified Italian republic.

• Mazzini's ideas were influential, though his early attempts at revolution failed.

MAIN PHASES 

Role of the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont):

• Piedmont, under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II and its Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour, played a crucial role in the unification.

• Cavour was a realist and sought unification through diplomacy, alliances, and military strength rather than revolutionary means. 

• He aimed to expel Austria from Italy and bring the northern states under Piedmontese control.

War with Austria (1859):

• Cavour forged an alliance with France, under Napoleon III, promising the French territories (Nice and Savoy) in exchange for military support against Austria.

• The Austro-Sardinian War (also known as the Second Italian War of Independence) began in 1859, resulting in victories for the Italian and French forces at battles like Magenta and Solferino.

• Austria was forced to cede Lombardy to Piedmont, although Venice remained under Austrian control.

Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi

• Garibaldi was a key military leader in the unification process.

• In 1860, with a small volunteer force known as the Red Shirts, Garibaldi launched an expedition to liberate southern Italy and Sicily, which were under Bourbon rule. 

• Garibaldi’s campaign, called the Expedition of the Thousand, was remarkably successful, and he managed to overthrow the Bourbon monarchy in Naples and Sicily.

• Garibaldi handed over control of the southern territories to King Victor Emmanuel II, uniting the southern and northern parts of Italy under the Sardinian crown.

Unification of Central Italy (1860):

After the success in the north and south, central Italy, including Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Papal States (except Rome), held plebiscites (popular votes) in favor of joining the newly unified Kingdom of Italy.

Venetia and Rome

• Venetia (1866): Austria still controlled Venetia.

• However, during the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Italy allied with Prussia.

• After Austria’s defeat by Prussia, Venetia was ceded to Italy.

• Rome (1870): Rome remained under the control of the Papal States, which were protected by French troops. 

• However, in 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, France withdrew its troops, and Italian forces seized Rome.

• Rome was declared the capital of the Kingdom of Italy in 1871.

Role of Key Figures:

• Giuseppe Mazzini: Ideological leader who inspired early movements for unification through his advocacy for a republican Italy.

• Count Camillo di Cavour: Pragmatic statesman who focused on diplomatic and military means to achieve unification, aligning Italy with European powers.

• Giuseppe Garibaldi: Charismatic revolutionary leader who led the military campaign to liberate southern Italy and played a crucial role in the final unification.

• Diplomatic Alliances: Cavour's diplomatic strategies were essential in the unification process, particularly his alliance with Napoleon III, which resulted in military victories against Austria.

• Military Campaigns: The unification was marked by several important wars, including the Austro-Sardinian War (1859), the Expedition of the Thousand (1860), and Italy's participation in the Austro-Prussian War (1866).

• Popular Support and Nationalism: Throughout the process, Italian nationalists used the concept of Risorgimento to inspire widespread support for unification, as seen in the plebiscites held in central Italy and the popular support for Garibaldi's campaigns.

Significance of Italian Unification

End of Foreign Domination

The unification of Italy marked the end of centuries of foreign control and influence over various Italian states. 

Political Consolidation

• Italy transitioned from a collection of fragmented, often backward states to a unified constitutional monarchy under the House of Savoy. 

• King Victor Emmanuel II became the first king of a unified Italy. 

Inspiration for Nationalism Elsewhere

The success of Italian unification inspired other nationalist movements in Europe, particularly the unification of Germany under Otto von Bismarck, which occurred shortly afterward.

Long-Term Effects

• While the political unification was complete by 1871, social and economic divisions persisted within Italy.

• The north was economically advanced, while the south lagged behind, contributing to internal tensions that would continue into the 20th century.

The Unification of GERMANY

• Before 1871, Germany was not a single country. It was divided into many small kingdoms, states, and principalities.

• There were over 39 German states after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, with two powerful ones—Prussia and Austria—competing for dominance.

• The process of bringing these states together into one unified country, Germany, was called the Unification of Germany, completed in 1871.

Stages of German Unification

Role of Prussia and Otto von Bismarck

• Prussia was the strongest and most powerful state among the German states.

• Otto von Bismarck, the Prime Minister of Prussia, played a critical role in unification.

• Bismarck followed a policy called “Blood and Iron”, meaning he believed that military strength (war) and practical politics would unify Germany, not speeches or peaceful agreements.

Wars that Led to Unification

• Bismarck strategically used wars to unite the German states under Prussia. 

• These wars weakened Austria and other rivals, paving the way for unification. 

War 1: Danish War (1864)

• Against: Denmark

• Why: To take control of two regions, Schleswig and Holstein, where many Germans lived.

• Outcome: Prussia (along with Austria) defeated Denmark, and Schleswig went to Prussia while Holstein went to Austria.

War 2: Austro-Prussian War (1866) (Also called the Seven Weeks' War)

• Against: Austria

• Why: To remove Austrian influence from German affairs.

• Outcome: Prussia won and formed the North German Confederation, bringing together northern German states under its control.

War 3: Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

• Against: France

• Why: Bismarck wanted to unite the southern German states, and war with France would make them rally around Prussia.

• Outcome: Prussia defeated France, and this victory stirred national pride across all German states.

• France had to give up Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, making Germans even more united.

Proclamation of the German Empire (1871)

• After the victory in the Franco-Prussian War, all German states agreed to unite.

• On January 18, 1871, the leaders of the German states gathered in the Palace of Versailles (in France) to declare Wilhelm I, the King of Prussia, as the first German Emperor (Kaiser).

• This marked the creation of the German Empire, with Berlin (in Prussia) as its capital.

Reasons Why Germany United Under Prussia

• Prussia’s Military Strength: Prussia had a strong and well-organized army, which helped in winning wars.

• Economic Strength: Prussia led the Zollverein, a customs union that made trade easier among German states, building economic unity.

• Bismarck’s Leadership: Bismarck’s diplomatic skills and wars ensured the unification happened under Prussia’s control.

• Shared German Identity: Despite different rulers, the people in these states spoke the same language (German) and shared common customs and traditions.

Impact of German Unification

• Germany became a powerful country in Europe.

• The balance of power in Europe shifted, creating tensions that contributed to future conflicts, including World War I.

• France remained bitter about losing the Alsace-Lorraine region, which further strained relations.

• In summary, the Unification of Germany was achieved under Prussian leadership, led by Otto von Bismarck, through wars and clever diplomacy. 

• The key events included three wars—against Denmark, Austria, and France—that ultimately brought the German states together into one powerful nation by 1871.