Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought Important Questions BA Programme nep Semester-3 in English

DISCUSS THE MAIN SOURCES AND CHARACTERSTICS OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT.

MAIN SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT

Vedas and Dharmashastras

• These are some of the oldest religious and legal texts in India.

• They discuss the duties of kings, justice, and governance, with a focus on moral values, social order, and the role of rulers in maintaining harmony.

Epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana

• These epics tell stories of kings and rulers and are full of examples of leadership, diplomacy, ethics, and justice. 

• The Mahabharata includes the Bhagavad Gita, which discusses the responsibilities and duties of a ruler.

Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya):

• This is one of the most detailed texts on governance, economics, and strategy in ancient India. 

• It provides practical advice on administration, military strategy, diplomacy, and law, presenting a realistic view of how a king should rule.

Buddhist and Jain Texts

• Buddhist texts like the Jataka tales and Jain writings emphasize non-violence, ethics, and the importance of a ruler’s duty towards the welfare of all beings.

Inscriptions and Edicts

Many kings, like Emperor Ashoka, left inscriptions that provide insights into their policies and views on governance, justice, and morality.

MAIN SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT

Islamisc Texts

With the arrival of Islamic rulers in India, Persian texts like Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and Akbarnama were written, providing insights into governance based on Islamic principles, including justice, administration, and the duties of rulers.

Sufi and Bhakti Literature

While not directly political, the teachings of Sufi saints and Bhakti poets emphasized equality, tolerance, and the importance of ruling with compassion, impacting political ideas in society.

Accounts of Travelers and Historians

Travelers like Ibn Battuta and historians like Al-Biruni documented the administration and political systems they observed in India, giving us an external view of medieval Indian politics.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT

Emphasis on Dharma (Moral Duty):

• Ancient Indian political thought revolves around the csoncept of dharma, which means doing one’s moral duty. 

• A king’s duty was to protect his people, maintain order, and uphold justice.

Welfare of the People

• Rulers were seen as caretakers of their people, and their actions were meant to ensure the welfare of all. 

• This is often referred to as a raja-dharma (duty of a king) in ancient texts and was also highlighted in medieval times.

Centralized Power with Checks and Balances

• Kings had significant authority but were advised by ministers, counselors, and religious scholars.

• This ensured that they ruled fairly and adhered to ethical principles.

Realism and Strategy

• Texts like the Arthashastra focus on practical and strategic governance.

• It suggests that while a ruler should aim for the good of people, they must also be shrewd and strategic to maintain power and protect the state.

Religious and Ethical Dimensions

• Both ancient and medieval political thoughts are heavily influenced by religion and ethics.

• Whether Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, or Islamic, rulers were expected to be just, merciful, and uphold moral values.

DISCUSS MANU'S UNDERSTANDING OF SOCIAL LAWS.

Manu’s understanding of social laws, as outlined in the Manusmriti (an ancient Indian text), provides a framework for how society should function, especially regarding duties, behavior, and relationships among people. 

VARNA SYSTEM (SOCIAL CLASSES)

Concept of Varna: Manu divided society into four main social classes, or varnas, each with specific roles and duties.

• Brahmins (priests and scholars): Responsible for teaching, studying, and performing rituals.

• Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers): Tasked with protecting and governing society.

• Vaishyas (merchants and farmers): In charge of trade, commerce, and agriculture.

• Shudras (servants and laborers): Their duty was to serve the other classes.

Ashrama System (Stages of Life)

Manu outlined four stages in a person’s life, each with different duties and responsibilities:

• Brahmacharya (student life): Learning and gaining knowledge.

• Grihastha (householder life): Marriage, family responsibilities, and earning a livelihood.

• Vanaprastha (hermit life): Gradual withdrawal from worldly duties, focusing on spirituality.

• Sannyasa (renounced life): Complete detachment, dedicating oneself to spiritual liberation.

Dharma (Moral Duty)

• Manu emphasized dharma, or moral duty, as the guiding principle for all actions. 

• Every person was expected to follow their dharma based on their varna (class) and ashrama (stage of life).

• This included following specific rules and behaviors, such as honesty, respect for others, and self-discipline, to create a balanced and ethical society.

Rules for Family and Marriage

• Manu also set guidelines for family relationships, including the roles of men and women, marriage customs, and duties toward family members.

• Role of Women: Manu placed women in a protective role within the family structure, emphasizing respect and care by male family members.

• However, women were generally expected to follow the authority of male family members. 

Justice and Punishment

• Manu believed in a fair and disciplined society where laws were enforced.

• He advocated for punishments to correct behavior and protect society, ensuring that justice was served. 

• King's Role: The king or ruler was seen as the upholder of social laws, responsible for protecting people and punishing wrongdoers.

Religious and Ethical Life

• Manu’s laws emphasized a life guided by religious duties, encouraging prayer, rituals, and moral behavior. 

• This approach was meant to ensure that people remained connected to spiritual values in daily life.

EXAMINE THE VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF STATECRAFT DESCRIBED BY BRIHASPATI.

Brihaspati, an ancient sage in Indian political thought, is known for his views on statecraft, which focus on the practical aspects of governance, diplomacy, and strategy.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

• Strength and Control: Brihaspati believed that power was essential for a ruler to control and protect their state.

• He emphasized that a king should gather enough resources, wealth, and a strong army to maintain authority. 

• Firm Leadership: A ruler must have a commanding presence and be firm in their decisions to prevent others from challenging their power. 

DIPLOMACY (MITRA OR FRIEND AND ENEMY POLICIES)

• Alliances and Enemies: Brihaspati advised rulers to carefully choose friends and enemies. 

• Forming alliances with powerful states could strengthen the ruler’s position, while being cautious with enemies would prevent unnecessary conflicts. 

• Flexible Policies: He suggested that a ruler should be flexible in their approach to diplomacy, sometimes using persuasion, gifts, or even deception to achieve their goals and maintain the balance of power. 

USE OF STRATEGY (CHANAKYA AND BRIHASPATI’S INFLUENCE)

Four Means (Saam, Daam, Dand, Bhed): Brihaspati outlined four strategies for dealing with rivals or threats:

• Saam (Persuasion): Trying to influence or convince others through reasoning and negotiation. 

• Daam (Gifts or Incentives): Using rewards or incentives to win support or cooperation.

• Dand (Punishment): Applying force or punishment when necessary to maintain control.

• Bhed (Divide and Rule): Creating divisions among enemies to weaken their unity. 

• Realism and Practicality: Brihaspati’s ideas were practical, often encouraging rulers to use cunning strategies rather than relying solely on moral principles. 

WELFARE AND WEALTH

• Economic Strength: Brihaspati emphasized the importance of wealth and economic resources for a strong state. 

• He believed that a wealthy state would have more power and be able to better protect and provide for its people. 

• People’s Welfare: Although power was a priority, he recognized that keeping the people content and ensuring their welfare would strengthen the ruler’s position and loyalty among citizens. 

SECRECY AND INTELLIGENCE

• Spy Network: Brihaspati highlighted the need for an efficient system of spies and informants to gather information. 

• This would allow the ruler to stay informed about potential threats and make wise decisions based on reliable information. 

• Secrecy: Keeping plans and strategies confidential was essential, as revealing too much could weaken the ruler’s position. 

LAW AND JUSTICE

• Maintaining Order: Brihaspati advised that a ruler should uphold strict laws and ensure justice to maintain order in society.

• This meant that people should feel secure and that wrongdoers would face consequences. 

• Fairness and Discipline: While enforcing justice, a king should be fair but disciplined, balancing mercy with firmness to maintain respect for authority.

CRITICALLY ANALYSE THE CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP AND STATECRAFT IN SHUKRA NITI.

The Shukra Niti, attributed to the sage Shukracharya, is an ancient text that gives practical advice on kingship and statecraft. It offers guidance on how a king should rule and manage the state effectively

The Ideal King as Protector

• Shukra Niti describes the king as the protector and caretaker of his people. 

• A good king should be just, compassionate, and dedicated to the welfare of his citizens.

• Strengths: This view emphasizes that the ruler’s main duty is the well-being of his people, showing a sense of responsibility and ethical leadership.

• Criticism: Although protection is essential, this focus may sometimes lead the king to prioritize security over freedoms, potentially limiting individual rights in favor of social order.

Moral and Ethical Conduct

• The text stresses that a king must uphold high moral standards, acting with integrity, kindness, and wisdom.

• A morally upright king is seen as a role model for the people.

• Strengths: This guidance on ethical conduct ensures that a king maintains trust and respect from his subjects, setting a positive example in society.

• Criticism: In a highly competitive and often hostile environment, overly focusing on idealistic morality may make a king appear weak or indecisive, especially in situations requiring tough or strategic decisions.

Absolute Authority and Discipline

• Shukra Niti advocates for a strong king who has absolute authority, meaning he holds the ultimate power in decision-making and law enforcement.

• Discipline is seen as essential to prevent disorder.

• Strengths: A strong authority ensures that the state functions smoothly, with fewer chances of rebellion or chaos, and that laws are respected.

• Criticism: Absolute authority can lead to dictatorship if not balanced with justice and compassion.

• If the king misuses his power, it can lead to oppression and dissatisfaction among the people. 

Welfare and Prosperity

• According to Shukra Niti, a king must ensure the economic and social prosperity of the state. 

• This involves promoting trade, agriculture, and other economic activities, as well as maintaining law and order.

• Strengths: Focusing on welfare ensures that people’s needs are met, creating a stable and prosperous society where citizens feel secure and valued.

• Criticism: Concentrating too much on economic prosperity might make the state overly materialistic, neglecting other values like individual freedom or cultural development. 

KEY CONCEPTS OF STATECRAFT IN SHUKRA NITI

The Importance of Advisors and Counsel:

• Shukra Niti advises kings to seek guidance from wise and trustworthy ministers. 

• A strong advisory team helps the king make informed decisions.

• Strengths: This approach values collective wisdom, allowing the king to receive different perspectives and reduce the chances of poor decisions.

• Criticism: Relying on advisors can sometimes lead to manipulation if advisors act in self-interest, especially if the king becomes dependent on them for decisions. 

Focus on Practicality and Strategy

• Shukra Niti promotes a realistic approach to statecraft, suggesting that a king should be strategic, resourceful, and even cunning when necessary to protect the state.

• Strengths: This flexibility helps the king adapt to different situations, using diplomacy or force depending on what is best for the state.

• Criticism: The emphasis on strategy and cunning may encourage deceptive or ruthless tactics, which could damage the king’s moral image and trustworthiness in the eyes of the people. 

Use of Punishments and Rewards 

• The text recommends a balanced use of punishments and rewards to keep people loyal and motivated. 

• Rewards encourage good behavior, while punishments deter wrongdoing.

• Strengths: This approach ensures that people are motivated to follow rules, making the state more orderly and reducing crime or disobedience.

• Criticism: Over-reliance on punishment can create a culture of fear, leading people to act out of fear rather than respect. This may cause resentment or rebellion in the long run. 

EXAMINE THE IMPORTANCE OF SWAMI IN KAUTLIYA SAPTANGA THEORY.

In Kautilya’s Saptanga Theory, the concept of Swami (the ruler or king) is fundamental. The Saptanga Theory, described in Kautilya's Arthashastra, outlines seven elements necessary for a strong and successful state.

Central Leadership and Stability

• The Swami is at the core of the state. 

• Just as the heart keeps a body alive, the king gives life to the state by ensuring stability and order. 

• A wise and competent Swami can lead the state to prosperity, but a weak or corrupt Swami can cause the downfall of the kingdom.

• Kautilya emphasized that a state’s success depends largely on the character, skills, and decisions of the king. 

Role Model and Moral Example

• The Swami is expected to set a high moral example for his subjects. This means he should be honest, disciplined, compassionate, and fair. 

• When people see their king behaving in an honorable way, they are more likely to respect him and follow his example. 

• According to Kautilya, a king should avoid luxury and greed, stay focused on the welfare of the people, and act with humility.

• If the Swami is just and kind, it helps to maintain peace and order in the state because people trust him and are less likely to rebel.

Decision-Maker for State Affairs

• The Swami has the highest authority in the kingdom and is responsible for making important decisions about laws, policies, military strategies, alliances, and the economy.

• His decisions impact the well-being of the people, the security of the state, and the overall success of the administration.

• For example, if the Swami decides to improve irrigation systems, it can lead to better agricultural production and thus greater prosperity. 

• If he neglects such issues, the state may suffer from poverty and unrest.

Protector of the People

• A crucial duty of the Swami is to protect his people from both internal and external threats. Internally, he should maintain law and order, protect people from crimes, and resolve conflicts fairly. 

• Externally, he is responsible for defending the kingdom from enemy attacks. 

• This means he should be skilled in diplomacy and warfare, able to choose the right strategies and build strong defenses to keep the kingdom safe.

• By ensuring security, the Swami creates an environment where people can live and work peacefully. 

Coordinator of the Other Elements

• In the Saptanga Theory, the Swami’s role is also to coordinate and manage the other six elements (Amatya, Janapada, Durg, Kosha, Danda, and Mitra). 

• Each of these elements has its own purpose, but without proper coordination by the Swami, they may not function

• well together. For example:

• Amatya (ministers) need the Swami's guidance to administer the state effectively.

• Kosha (treasury) requires the Swami's oversight to ensure proper budgeting and funding for public projects and the army.

• Danda (army) needs the Swami’s leadership for training and strategic planning in times of war.

• Mitra (allies) are managed through the Swami’s diplomatic skills to maintain peaceful relations or build strong alliances. 

Personal Qualities of a Good Swami

• Knowledgeable: A Swami should be well-educated, especially in statecraft, economics, and ethics.

• Courageous: A Swami must be brave and willing to defend his kingdom.

• Just and Fair: A good king treats all subjects fairly, without showing favoritism.

• Compassionate: He should care about the welfare of his people and act in their best interest.

• Disciplined and Self-Controlled: A king should avoid indulgence in luxury and should not be influenced by anger or greed. 

ELUCIDATE ON KAUTILYA'S MANDALA THEORY. DO YOU THINK IT IS RELEVANT IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA. GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER.

Kautilya's Mandala Theory is a strategy for foreign relations and defense outlined in his famous work, the Arthashastra. According to this theory, every state should be aware of its neighboring states and understand their intentions.

KEY COsNCEPTS OF MANDALA THEORY

• Immediate Neighbors as Enemies: According to Kautilya, neighboring states are natural competitors. 

• Because they share borders, they are likely to compete for resources, land, and influence, leading to conflicts of interest

• Second-Circle States as Allies: The states surrounding an immediate enemy can be considered allies because they also see the immediate neighbor as a potential threat.

• In this way, the second layer of states becomes a support system to counterbalance the threat from immediate neighbors. 

• Friend and Foe Alliances: Kautilya suggests that states should form alliances based on shared interests and threats, not just geographical proximity. 

• This means a state should strategically ally with other states if it benefits its security or strengthens its position against enemies.

Six-Fold Policy: Kautilya also describes six methods of diplomacy within the Mandala Theory:

• Sandhi (making peace),

• Vigraha (waging war),

• Asana (remaining neutral),

• Yana (preparing for war),

• Samsraya (forming alliances),  

• Dvaidhibhava (double policy or befriending both sides). 

Relevance of Mandala Theory in Contemporary India

• Geopolitical Positioning: India has immediate neighbors with whom it has complex relationships, like Pakistan and China. 

• Kautilya’s idea that “neighboring states are likely to be rivals” still applies here, as India has experienced tensions and conflicts with both countries over border issues and security concerns.

• Alliances and Partnerships: Following Kautilya's approach of forming alliances with states beyond immediate neighbors, 

• India has developed strong relationships with countries like the United States, Japan, and Australia, which are not direct neighbors but share common interests, particularly in maintaining security and stability in the Indo-Pacific region. 

• Diplomatic Flexibility: Kautilya’s six-fold policy allows flexibility in diplomatic approaches, which is useful in today’s complex world.

• India’s approach of engaging in dialogue with rival countries while strengthening its defense and building international alliances shows a blend of peace, neutrality, and preparedness for defense, similar to the Mandala Theory.

Limitations of Mandala Theory Today

1. Globalization: Modern international relations are influenced by global interdependence. Countries are economically connected, so the "enemy's enemy is a friend" principle doesn't always apply. For instance, India and China may compete, but they also trade extensively.

2. International Organizations: Global organizations like the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and various regional groups impact international relations. These organizations aim to promote cooperation and resolve conflicts peacefully, which was less common in Kautilya's time.

3. Nuclear Deterrence: In Kautilya's time, military power was primarily about the size and strength of armies. Today, nuclear deterrence and advanced technology have changed the nature of warfare and diplomacy, making direct conflict less likely but more dangerous.

DISCUSS KABIR'S VIEWS ON PREVAILING INEQUALITIES IN HIS CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY.

Kabir, a 15th-century poet and social reformer, spoke out against the inequalities and divisions he saw in his society. He lived during a time when there were deep divisions based on caste, religion, and social status, and he strongly opposed these injustices.

Criticism of Caste Divisions

• Kabir was deeply critical of the caste system, which divided people into rigid social groups with specific roles and rights.

• Higher castes enjoyed privileges, while lower castes faced discrimination and mistreatment.  

• Kabir believed that all people are equal, regardless of birth or caste. 

• He argued that a person’s worth is not defined by their caste but by their actions and devotion to God. 

• His message encouraged people to look beyond caste and treat everyone with respect. 

Opposition to Religious Hypocrisy

• Kabir saw many people, both Hindus and Muslims, who followed religious practices without true devotion or understanding. 

• He criticized this hypocrisy, pointing out that rituals and outward displays of faith were meaningless without true love for God and compassion for others. 

Call for Unity and Equality

• Kabir believed in the idea of a single, universal God, and he encouraged unity among people of different backgrounds.

• He rejected the religious and social barriers that divided people and taught that all humans are equal in the eyes of God. 

• Kabir’s verses often conveyed a sense of universal brotherhood, promoting harmony between communities and challenging social hierarchies. 

Emphasis on Humility and Compassion

• Kabir encouraged humility, compassion, and kindness.

• He believed that these qualities were more important than one’s social status, religious identity, or wealth.

• Through his teachings, Kabir aimed to make people realize that spiritual growth and moral character are what truly matter.

WHAT IS MEANT BY ADVAITA VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY? EXPLAIN ITS IMPORTANCE IN PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICS.

Advaita Vedanta is a major philosophy in Hinduism, developed by the philosopher Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century. 

• Advaita Vedanta is a Hindu philosophy that teaches oneness – the idea that everything is connected and that there is no true separation between things. 

• Oneness: Advaita means "non-dual," which means "not two." This philosophy says that everything in the world is actually one, even though it looks like we are all separate.

• The individual soul (Atman) and the universal soul (Brahman) are actually the same thing.

• Illusion (Maya): Advaita teaches that we see the world as separate and divided because of Maya, which means illusion. 

• This illusion makes us believe we are different from each other, but this is not true in the deepest sense. 

• Liberation (Moksha): The goal in Advaita Vedanta is to realize this oneness and to free oneself from the cycle of rebirth. 

• When we understand that our true self is part of the universal soul, we find peace and freedom. 

Why It’s Important in Philosophy

• Big Influence: Advaita is one of the main philosophies in Hinduism, and it has shaped a lot of Hindu beliefs and practices. 

• Unity and Equality: By teaching that everything is connected, Advaita promotes the idea that we should respect everyone, as we are all part of the same reality. 

• Personal Growth: Advaita encourages people to look inside themselves for truth and not to be too attached to material things. 

Why It’s Important in Society and Politics

• Promoting Peace and Tolerance: The idea of oneness encourages people to respect each other and avoid conflicts because we are all connected.

• Influenced Indian Leaders: Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi were inspired by Advaita. 

• Gandhi used these ideas to bring people together and promote equality and non-violence.

• Foundation for Equal Rights: Since Advaita says that everyone is connected, it has been used to support equal rights and fair treatment for all.

DISCUSS THIRUVALLAVUR'S THOUGHTS AND SUGGESTIONS  ON GOVERNANCE AND JUSTICE.

Thiruvalluvar, a famous ancient Tamil poet and philosopher, gave many wise suggestions on governance and justice in his book, Thirukkural. His thoughts focus on how rulers should lead with integrity, justice, and compassion for the welfare of society.

Qualities of a Good Ruler

• Thiruvalluvar believed a ruler should be wise, disciplined, and fair. A good ruler must act with honesty, courage, and kindness to protect the people and ensure peace.

• He emphasized that a ruler should avoid arrogance and instead be humble, always seeking to understand the needs of the people. 

Justice and Fairness

• Justice is at the core of Thiruvalluvar’s teachings. He argued that a ruler must be fair in judgments and punishments, making sure that the innocent are protected and the guilty are punished appropriately.

• Thiruvalluvar also highlighted that justice should be guided by moral principles, not by personal gain or favoritism. Rulers should always strive for truth and fairness. 

Compassion and Welfare of People

• Thiruvalluvar stressed that rulers should care deeply about the well-being of their people. They should focus on eliminating poverty, providing resources, and ensuring the safety and happiness of society.

• He believed that a ruler’s success is measured by the happiness and prosperity of the people. 

Law and Order

• A good government, according to Thiruvalluvar, maintains strict laws but enforces them with compassion and understanding. 

• This balance is essential to prevent fear among the people and to maintain trust in the leadership. 

Avoiding Corruption

• Thiruvalluvar warned rulers to stay away from greed and corruption.

• He advised them to avoid taking bribes or misusing power for personal gain, as this would harm the trust people have in them.

CRITICALLY EVALUATE BASAVANNA'S VIEWS ON DEMOCRACY AND STATE ADMINISTRATION.

Basavanna, a 12th-century philosopher and social reformer from Karnataka, presented unique and powerful ideas on democracy and state administration. His views emphasized equality, ethical governance, and service to the people

Equality and Social Justice

• Positive Aspects: Basavanna promoted equality and believed in the dignity of all individuals, regardless of caste, wealth, or social status. 

• He felt that everyone should have an equal say and be treated fairly by the government. This focus on equality can be seen as an early democratic ideal, as it advocates for an inclusive society where everyone’s voice matters. 

• Limitations: Although Basavanna’s ideas supported social justice, implementing such equality in a deeply hierarchical society was challenging. 

• His vision was ahead of its time, but society wasn’t ready to fully embrace it, which led to resistance from the upper classes. 

Accountability and Ethical Leadership

• Positive Aspects: Basavanna believed that leaders should be ethical and accountable, acting with honesty and integrity. 

• He stressed that administrators should view themselves as servants of the people, putting the public’s interests above their own. 

• This idea promotes a form of governance that’s close to the democratic principle of serving the people. 

• Limitations: While this principle sounds ideal, ensuring that leaders consistently act ethically is difficult in practice.

• People in power may face temptations and pressures that lead them to prioritize personal gain over public welfare, challenging Basavanna’s vision. 

Critique of Caste-Based Hierarchy

• Positive Aspects: Basavanna strongly criticized the caste system and proposed that state administration should not be influenced by social hierarchies.

• He believed that everyone, regardless of their background, had the potential to contribute to society, a democratic idea of equal participation. 

• Limitations: In the medieval era, society was deeply entrenched in the caste system, so it was almost impossible to achieve an administration free from these biases. 

• Basavanna’s views were revolutionary but difficult to implement practically during his time. 

Empowerment Through Local Decision-Making

• Positive Aspects: Basavanna supported community-based decision-making, allowing local groups to discuss and decide on issues. 

• This approach resonates with modern democratic values, as it encourages participation and collective governance at the local level 

• Limitations: However, the effectiveness of local decision-making can vary, and it might not work well for larger, more complex issues that require centralized authority.

• Relying solely on local governance might create inconsistencies in policy and law enforcement across different regions. 

Role of Religion and State

• Positive Aspects: Basavanna’s focus was on spirituality as a personal journey, separate from governance, advocating that state matters should not be guided by religious biases.

• This view is aligned with the democratic principle of secularism, where the state treats all religions equally. 

• Limitations: Separating religion from administration was difficult in a time when religious practices were deeply woven into people’s lives and governance.

• Some may have resisted this idea as it seemed to challenge established norms.