What is Anthropology?
Anthropology is the study of humans, their cultures, and how they evolved. Focuses on living societies and their traditions.
Two main branches:
- Physical Anthropology: Studies human evolution and primates.
- Social Anthropology: Studies human culture and behavior.
What is Archaeology?
- Archaeology studies ancient, lost civilizations by digging up artefacts (tools, pottery, structures, etc.).
- It is closely connected to anthropology because both study human culture.
- Anthropology studies living people.
- Archaeology studies old and forgotten cultures.
How is Archaeology Done?
- By excavating (digging) to recover ancient objects buried in the ground.
- Earlier: Focused on describing and classifying artefacts.
- Now: Uses scientific tools to understand ancient societies better
Why is Archaeology Important in India?
- India has a lot of ancient artefacts and rich cultural history.
- Archaeology helps understand ancient ways of life and connects them to today’s cultures.
Prehistory
What is Prehistory?
- Prehistory means the time before humans invented writing.
- During this period, there were no written records; everything we know comes from objects left behind by ancient people.
How Do We Know About Prehistory?
By studying:
- Tools made from stone (quartzite, jasper).
- Fossils of ancient humans.
- Cave paintings and other artefacts.
Life During Prehistory:
- People were nomads (moved from place to place).
- They hunted animals and gathered plants for food.
- They made tools from stone and bones for hunting, cutting, and digging.
Phases of Prehistory
- Lower Palaeolithic: Heavy tools like handaxes and cleavers.
- Middle Palaeolithic: Smaller tools made from flakes (scrapers, points).
- Upper Palaeolithic: Thin and sharp tools like blades.
Mesolithic:
- Small tools called microliths (used in arrowheads, harpoons).
- Rock art and burials started.
- Beginnings of farming and settled life.
Neolithic
- Full-time agriculture and settled villages.
Protohistory
What is Protohistory?
- Protohistory is the time between prehistory (no writing) and history (written records).
- Some writing existed but wasn’t fully developed or understood.
Indian Context
- In India, protohistory includes:
- Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley):
- They used scripts, but we still can’t read them.
Vedic Period:
- Early Vedic traditions were oral (spoken), written later around 4th century CE
Why Is It Important?
- Protohistory helps us understand societies that existed after the Neolithic period and before major empires like the Mauryan period.
- It shows how people transitioned from using stone tools to metals and writing systems.
Sources of Archaeological Research
Artefacts (Man-made Objects):
- Movable objects used, modified, or created by humans.
Examples:
- Tools made from stone, bone, or wood.
- Pottery (clay and stone containers).
- Skeletal remains and broken bones.
- Fabrics and woven materials.
What are Biofacts?
Remains of plants and animals.
Examples:
- Seeds, pollen, or wood.
- Bones of animals.
- Biofacts help us understand what people ate and how they lived.
Steps in Archaeological Research
Finding a Site:
Old Methods:
- Using stories, myths, or visible objects like broken pottery on the surface.
Accidental Discoveries:
- Example: Harappan Civilization was found when workers were digging for railway materials.
Modern Methods:
- Scientists now use technology to locate ancient sites.
Process of Study:
- Exploration: Searching and identifying sites.
- Excavation: Digging carefully to uncover artefacts.
- Post-Excavation: Studying and recording findings to understand the past.
Relationship Between Archaeology and Other Subjects
Archaeology and History
- History: Studies the past using written records.
- Archaeology: Studies things left behind by people, even if they had no writing (e.g., tools, buildings, graves).
Archaeology and Environment
- People’s lives were shaped by their surroundings (rivers, mountains, climate).
- Studying the environment helps understand how ancient people survived.
Archaeology and Anthropology
- Archaeology borrows methods from anthropology, geology, physics, and chemistry.
- It studies how humans lived and evolved over time.
Archaeology and Physics
Physics tools help find buried artefacts and date them. Examples:
- Magnetometers (find metal objects underground).
- Radiocarbon dating (to find the age of objects).
Archaeology and Chemistry
- Chemistry is used to clean and preserve artefacts (e.g., metals, wall paintings).
Archaeology and Botany
- Examines plant remains to learn about ancient farming and diets.
- Example: Pollen analysis shows what crops were grown in the past.
Archaeology and Zoology
- Studies animal remains to understand how humans domesticated animals (e.g., dogs, sheep) and hunted.
Dating Methods
Absolute Dating:
- Gives exact dates using coins, inscriptions, or scientific tools.
Relative Dating:
- Compares artefacts and layers to figure out which came first.
Common Dating Methods
Stratigraphy:
- Studies layers of soil. Older objects are deeper, and newer ones are closer to the surface.
Dendrochronology (Tree Rings):
- Counts tree rings to date wooden artefacts.
Radiocarbon Dating:
- Measures the amount of Carbon-14 in organic objects like bones or wood to determine age (up to 50,000 years old).
Potassium-Argon Dating
- This method is used to find the age of volcanic rocks (rocks formed from lava).
- When lava cools down and turns into rock, it traps a gas called argon inside it.
- Over millions of years, a tiny part of the rock’s potassium changes into argon gas.
- Scientists measure how much argon gas is inside the rock to figure out how old the rock is.
Thermoluminescence Dating
- This method is used to date things like pottery or stones that were heated long ago.
- When pottery or stones are heated, they trap energy inside them.
- Over time, this energy builds up.
- When scientists heat the object again, it releases the trapped energy as light.
- By measuring this light, they can find out when the object was last heated (how old it is).
Features of Lower Palaeolithic Culture
Tools
- Main tools were handaxes and cleavers.
- These tools were large, heavy, and rough at first but became smaller and sharper over time.
- Tools were made from stones like quartzite and other hard materials.
- This period is called the Acheulian Culture (named after St. Acheul in France, where similar tools were first found).
Key Phases
- Divided into three phases: Early, Middle, and Late Acheulian.
- Phases show the gradual improvement in tool-making skills.
Lifestyle
- Early humans were hunter-gatherers:
- They hunted animals and gathered wild plants for food.
- Lived in open areas or near rivers for easy access to resources.
How Do We Know About This Culture?
Discoveries in India:
- Robert Bruce Foote (1863): Found the first handaxe in Pallavaram (Chennai), Tamil Nadu.
- Hathnora (Madhya Pradesh): Only site in India where a fossilized human skull was found.
Tools and Fossils
- Stone tools like handaxes, scrapers, and cleavers.
- Fossils of animals hunted by early humans.
Important Excavations
Isampur (Karnataka):
- Oldest known quarry site in the world, about 1.2 million years old.
- Early humans collected stones here to make tools like handaxes and cleavers.
Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu):
- Discovered by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863.
- Tools made from quartzite, brought from far away.
Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh):
- Over 4,700 tools found in a rock shelter.
- Tools include scrapers, cleavers, and knives made on-site.
Tikoda (Madhya Pradesh):
- Tools found in layers, showing long-term human activity in the area.
How Tools and Sites Were Found
- Tools were often found near riverbanks or in rock shelters.
Excavations revealed how humans:
- Chose stones for making tools.
- Improved their techniques over time.
What is the Middle Palaeolithic Culture?
- This period represents the middle phase of the Stone Age, marked by better tools and more advanced human behavior.
- It was identified in India by H.D. Sankalia in 1955 during his excavation at Nevasa (Pravara River, Maharashtra).
Features of Middle Palaeolithic Culture
Tools
- Tools became smaller, sharper, and more efficient than those in the earlier (Lower Palaeolithic) period.
Common tools included:
- Scrapers: For shaping wood and other materials.
- Points: Used as spearheads for hunting.
- Borers: Used to drill holes.
Materials
- Stones were sourced from riverbeds and rocky areas.
- Common materials: Quartzite, chert, jasper, and limestone.
Lifestyle
- Lived in rock shelters, caves, or near rivers.
- Used resin (natural glue) to attach tools to wooden or bone handles.
- Hunting, wood carving, and other daily tasks were done using these tools.
Major Middle Palaeolithic Sites in India
Narmada Valley (Central India):
- Artefacts include scrapers, denticulates, knives, and flakes made from quartzite and chalcedony.
- Adamgarh Rock Shelter: Tools found in their original places.
Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh):
- A rich site with over 3,000 artefacts, including scrapers, knives, and colorful quartzite tools.
Tapi Valley (Maharashtra):
- Found flake tools, cores, and evidence of blade-making techniques.
Rajasthan:
- Sites like Singi Talav, Chambal River Basin, and Thar Desert yielded tools made from jasper, chert, and quartzite.
- Tools found in reddish soil suggest a cooler and wetter climate.
Eastern India (Bihar, Odisha):
- Sites like Bhimbandh, Keonjhar, and Dhenkanal revealed scraper-point tools made from shale and limestone.
Garo Hills (Northeast India):
- Tools like scrapers and points were crafted from dolerite.
Technological Advancements
Smaller Tools:
- Tools became smaller and sharper compared to earlier periods.
- This made them more efficient and easier to handle.
New Techniques:
- Tools were made by chipping flakes from prepared cores, which allowed better control over shape and size.
Use of Natural Resources:
- Humans learned to use natural adhesives like resin to attach tools to handles, making them more functional.
Upper Palaeolithic Culture
What is the Upper Palaeolithic Culture?
- The Upper Palaeolithic period represents the final phase of the Old Stone Age.
- It is marked by advanced tools, fire-making, and artistic expression.
Tools and Technology:
- Tools became more refined and specialized.
Common tools include:
- Blades (long, sharp pieces of stone).
- Burins (tools for carving).
- Scrapers (used for shaping wood or scraping hides).
- Points (used as tips for spears or arrows).
Microliths (Small Tools)
- microlithic tools like tiny blades and backed blades emerged.
- These tools were often symmetrical and carefully shaped.
Bone Tools
- Bone tools, similar to those from the Magdalenian culture of France, were found in Kurnool caves (Andhra Pradesh).
Lifestyle
- People were nomads, moving in search of food and resources.
- Learned fire-making and cooking techniques.
Activities included:
- Hunting: Likely used bows, arrows, traps, and nets.
- Fishing: Evidence from grindstones and anvils suggests food preparation included plants and fish.
- Toolmaking: Used fire to heat stone materials like chert for tool-making.
Discoveries
- Tools found in rock shelters and open-air sites across India.
Notable sites:
- Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh): Bone tools and evidence of fire use.
- Gunjana Valley (Andhra Pradesh): Grindstones and other tools for plant-based food preparation.
Fireplace Discovery
- A fireplace was found in the Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi cave complex (Kurnool).
- It dates back to 17,390 years ago.
Evidence:
- Charred bones and ash patches.
- Green chert nodules heated for tool-making.
- Used for roasting meat and preparing tools
Human Settlements
- Larger communities were found in Southeast India.
- Smaller, densely populated villages were common in Central and Northwest India
Transition from Hunting-Gathering to Settled Agriculture
- Neolithic period marks a major turning point in human history when people shifted from hunting and gathering to settled farming.
- This transition allowed humans to settle in one place, grow crops, and domesticate animals instead of relying solely on wild plants and animals.
Key Features of the Transition
Domestication of Plants and Animals
- People began growing crops like wheat, barley, rice, and millet.
- Domesticated animals like sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs for food, milk, and labor.
Settled Villages
- Farming required people to stay in one place, leading to the creation of permanent settlements.
- These villages often developed near fertile river valleys or areas with good soil and water.
Storage and Surplus
- Agriculture allowed people to produce surplus food, which they stored in pots and granaries.
- Surplus food enabled population growth and trade.
Social Organization
- With settled life, societies became more organized, with specific roles for farming, tool-making, and storage.
Stone Tools
- Tools were polished and sharper than earlier periods.
- Examples: Axes, adzes, sickles, and grinding stones.
Pottery
- Handmade pottery was used for storage and cooking.
- Early pots were simple and later decorated with patterns.
Houses
- Houses were made of mud, thatch, or stone.
- Settlements often had circular or rectangular houses grouped together
Ornaments
- People used beads, shells, and stones to make jewelry.
Subsistence Strategies of Neolithic Communities in India
Farming
- Northwest India: Wheat, barley (Mehrgarh, now in Pakistan).
- South India: Millets, pulses, and rice (sites like Hallur, Karnataka).
- Ganga Valley: Rice (Chirand, Bihar).
- Farming allowed communities to rely less on wild plants.
Animal Husbandry
- Domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs provided meat, milk, and labor.
- Dogs were also domesticated.
Fishing and Hunting
- Hunting continued alongside farming, especially in the early Neolithic period.
- People hunted animals like deer and wild boars and fished in nearby rivers.
Neolithic Sites in India
Mehrgarh (Pakistan, now part of the Indus Valley):
- One of the earliest Neolithic sites.
- Evidence of wheat and barley farming, animal domestication, and mud-brick houses.
Chirand (Bihar):
- Evidence of rice cultivation and pottery.
Hallur (Karnataka):
- Millets and pulses were grown.
- Tools like polished axes were used.
Burzahom (Kashmir):
- Known for pit dwellings.
- Evidence of hunting and farming coexistence.
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES IN INDIA
What is the Chalcolithic Period?
- The Chalcolithic period (Copper-Stone Age) is the time when humans began using copper tools alongside stone tools.
- Timeframe: Around 2500 BCE to 700 BCE in India
First Use of Metal (Copper):
- Copper was the first metal used by humans for making tools and ornaments.
- Tools like axes, chisels, and knives were more efficient than stone tools.
Beginning of Village Life
- Settlements became more organized, with evidence of farming, animal husbandry, and trade.
Cultural Development
- Distinct regional cultures emerged with their unique pottery, tools, and burial practices.
Trade and Interaction:
- Chalcolithic communities traded with other cultures for raw materials like copper and semi-precious stones.
Key Chalcolithic Cultures in India
Ahar-Banas Culture (Rajasthan)
- Timeframe: 2500 BCE – 1500 BCE.
- Location: Rajasthan (Ahar, Gilund, Balathal).
Significance:
- Early farmers who cultivated wheat, barley, and lentils.
- Domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats.
Key Features
- Black-and-red ware pottery.
- Houses made of stone and mud.
- Tools: Copper tools and stone tools
- Burials: Often accompanied by pottery and copper objects.
Kayatha Culture (Madhya Pradesh)
- Timeframe: 2000 BCE – 1800 BCE.
- Location: Chambal Valley, Madhya Pradesh.
Significance:
- Early copper users with advanced farming techniques.
Key Features
- Ochre-colored pottery (red and orange with geometric designs).
- Evidence of wheat and barley cultivation.
- Tools: Copper celts (axes), terracotta beads.
- Burials: Pottery and copper objects were often included.
Malwa Culture (Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra)
- Timeframe: 1800 BCE – 1200 BCE.
- Location: Malwa Plateau (Navdatoli, Daimabad, and Inamgaon).
Significance:
- Known for large and well-planned settlements.
- One of the most advanced Chalcolithic cultures in India.
Key Features
- Painted pottery with intricate geometric patterns.
- Houses: Mud-brick houses with distinct rooms.
- Agriculture: Grew wheat, barley, and pulses.
- Burials: Distinct practice of burying the dead inside the houses.
Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra)
- Timeframe: 1400 BCE – 700 BCE.
- Location: Maharashtra (Inamgaon, Daimabad, Jorwe).
Significance:
- One of the last Chalcolithic cultures before the Iron Age.
Key Features
- Jorwe pottery: Black-and-red ware with unique shapes and designs.
- Agriculture: Cultivated millet, rice, wheat, and barley.
- Houses: Rectangular mud houses.
- Tools: Copper and stone tools.
- Burials: Bodies buried with pottery and tools.
key characteristics of the Early Harappan period
- The Early Harappan period refers to the initial developmental phase of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), which laid the foundation for the later Mature Harappan Civilization.
- Timeframe: Approximately 3300 BCE to 2600 BCE.
- Location: Spread across the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, including present-day Pakistan, northwest India, and parts of Afghanistan.
Significance:
- Transition from village-level societies to organized urban centers.
- The beginning of town planning and technological advancements.
- The establishment of trade networks and the use of standardized tools and pottery.
Settlements and Town Planning
- Villages and towns were small and less organized compared to the Mature Harappan phase.
- Examples: Kot Diji, Amri, and Kalibangan.
- Settlements were fortified with mudbrick walls for protection against floods and invaders.
- Basic street layouts were seen, hinting at early urban planning.
Agricultural Economy
- Agriculture was the primary occupation.
- Crops grown included wheat, barley, lentils, dates, and millet.
- Early evidence of rice cultivation at sites like Lothal and Rakhigarhi.
- Use of simple irrigation systems to support farming.
Domestication of Animals
- Animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and buffalo were domesticated.
- Evidence of early bullock carts, suggesting the use of animals for transportation and farming.
Tools and Technology
- Tools made of stone, copper, and bronze were used for farming, hunting, and crafting.
- Introduction of ploughs and sickles for agricultural activities.
Pottery
- Handmade and wheel-made pottery was common.
- Pottery often featured geometric patterns and was painted in red, black, or brown.
- Pottery types include storage jars, cooking pots, and bowls.
Trade and Economy
- Early trade routes connected settlements to neighboring regions, such as Mesopotamia and Central Asia.
- Evidence of barter trade involving goods like copper, shell, and semi-precious stones.
Craft Specialization
- Early industries included bead-making, shell carving, and pottery.
- Sites like Dholavira and Lothal show evidence of trade-related activities.
Religious Practices
- Worship of natural elements like trees, animals, and mother goddesses.
- No clear temples, but altars or platforms may have been used for rituals (e.g., Kalibangan fire altars).
Important Early Harappan Sites
Kot Diji (Sindh, Pakistan):
- Fortified settlement with evidence of pottery and early town planning.
Amri (Sindh, Pakistan):
- One of the earliest excavated sites, showcasing hand-made pottery and early agriculture.
Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India):
- Evidence of fire altars, ploughed fields, and early irrigation systems.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India):
- Large settlement with evidence of rice cultivation and trade activities.
Dholavira (Gujarat, India):
- Early town planning and bead-making industries.
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